AIRCRAFT 


Evan  J  David 


AIRCRAFT 


AIRCRAFT 

ITS  DEVELOPMENT  IN  WAR  AND   PEACE  AND 
ITS  COMMERCIAL  FUTURE 


BY 
EVAN  JOHN  DAVID 

ASSOCIATE   EDITOR  OF  "  FLYING  " 


FULLY    ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 
1919 


6 


V 


COPYRIGHT,  1919,  BY 
CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


Copyright,  1919,  by  the  CURTIS  PUBLISHING  CO. 


Published  September.  1919 


J 


TO 

ALL   WHO   HELPED   ME  TO  OBTAIN 
AN  EDUCATION 


PREFACE 

THE  object  of  this  book  is  to  explain  the  fundamental 
principles  of  aeronautics  and  to  point  out  the  historic 
development  of  both  the  heavier-than-air  and  the 
lighter-than-air  craft.  The  treatment  is  simple.  Tech- 
nical phrases  have  been  avoided  wherever  possible. 
Emphasis  has  been  laid  on  the  changes  in  the  design  or 
construction  of  aeroplanes  and  dirigibles,  which  show 
the  evolution  of  flight  and  aircraft  from  early  experi- 
ments with  balloons  and  gliders  to  the  transatlantic 
flights  of  the  NC-4,  the  Vickers  "Vimy"  Bomber,  and 
the  R-34.  Only  those  things  have  been  singled  out 
which  indicated  a  step  forward  in  the  science  of  aero- 
nautics. Emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  commercial 
accomplishments  of  the  aeroplane  and  the  dirigible, 
and  many  of  the  present  uses  and  future  possibilities 
of  aircraft  as  a  commercial  vehicle  have  been  pointed 
out. 

I  am  indebted  to  many  sources  for  the  information 
contained  herein.  Mr.  Henry  Woodhouse,  the  well- 
known  aeronautical  authority  and  editor  of  Flying 
Magazine  and  author  of  the  text-books  on  military  and 
naval  aeronautics,  has  been  the  source  of  much  of  my 
information,  and  the  volumes  of  Flying  Magazine 
have  supplied  me  with  much  historic  data.  Aerial  Age 
Weekly  and  Mr.  G.  Douglas  Wardrop,  the  managing 

vii 


viii  PREFACE 

editor,  have  also  been  very  helpful.  The  British  peri- 
odicals Flight^  The  Aeroplane,  and  Aeronautics  have 
furnished  me  with  many  facts  regarding  British  air- 
craft. The  articles  of  Mr.  C.  G.  Grey,  the  editor  of 
The  Aeroplane,  dealing  with  the  growth  of  heavier- 
than-air  machines,  and  of  Mr.  W.  L.  Wade  on  lighter- 
than-air  craft,  have  been  the  source  of  many  of  the 
facts  regarding  the  evolution  of  aircraft.  Many  other 
aeronautical  authorities  have  afforded  statistics,  facts, 
etc. 

EVAN  JOHN  DAVID. 
NEW  YORK,  August  12. 


CONTENTS 


I.    THE  FIRST  BALLOONS 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FREE  BALLOON — THE 
CAPTIVE  BALLOON — THE  DIRIGIBLE — THE  BLIMP 
— THE  KITE  BALLOON. 

II.    THE  AEROPLANE 13    Xs 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  PLANES — LILLIENTHAL's 
GLIDER — LANGLEY'S  AERODROME — SUCCESS  OF 
THE  WRIGHTS — FIRST  AEROPLANE  FLIGHTS. 

III.  WHY  AN  AEROPLANE  FLIES 25 

THE  HELICOPTER — THE  ORNITHOPTER — WING 
SURFACE — FLYING  SPEED — LANDING  SPEED — EF- 
FECT OF  MOTORS — THE  SEAPLANE. 

IV.  LEARNING  TO  FLY 34    \ 

EARLY  METHODS — DEVELOPMENT  OF  SCHOOLS — 
STUDYING  STRUCTURE  OF  PLANES,  MOTORS, 
THEORY  OF  FLIGHT,  AERODYNAMICS,  MAP  READ- 
ING— FRENCH  SYSTEM — GOSPORT  SYSTEM. 

V.    AEROPLANE  DEVELOPMENT,  1903  TO  1918    ...      47    * 

ADER'S  EXPERIMENTS — MAXIM'S  MULTIPLANE — 
DUMONT'S  AEROPLANE — WRIGHTS'  1908  PLANE — 
VOISIN  PUSHER — BLERIOT'S  MONOPLANE — AVRO 
TRIPLANE — FARMAN'S  AILERONS — OTHER  TYPES. 

VI.    DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  AEROPLANE  FOR  WAR  PUR- 
POSES        ....      67  ^ 

GERMAN  AERIAL  PREPAREDNESS — PRIZES  GIVEN 
FOR  AERONAUTICS  BY  VARIOUS  GOVERNMENTS — 

FIRST  USE  OF  PLANES  IN  WAR— FIRST  AIRCRAFT 
ARMAMENT. 

ix 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

VII.    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    LIBERTY    AND    OTHER 

MOTORS 76 

DEBATE  IN  REGARD  TO  ORIGIN  OF  LIBERTY  MOTOR 
— LIBERTY-ENGINE  CONFERENCE,  DESIGN,  AND 
TEST — MAKERS  OF  PARTS — HISPANO-SUIZA  MO- 
TOR— ROLLS-ROYCE — OTHER  MOTORS. 

VIII.    GROWTH     OF    AIRCRAFT     MANUFACTURING    IN 

UNITED  STATES 94 

THE  1912  EXPOSITION — THE'  FIRST  PAN-AMERI- 
CAN EXPOSITION — THE  MANUFACTURERS  AIR- 
CRAFT EXPOSITION — DESCRIPTIONS  OF  EXHIB- 
ITORS— GROWTH  OF  AIRCRAFT  FACTORIES — 
NAVAL  AIRCRAFT  FACTORY. 

IX.    THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  AERO  MAIL  ....     134 

FIRSJ-MA*fe  CARRIED  BY  ^AIRCRAFT— NEW  YORK- 
PHILADELPHIA  -  WASHINGTON  SERVICE  —  NEW 
YORK-CLEVELAND-CHICAGO  SERVICE — FOREIGN 
AERO  MAIL  ROUTES. 

X      X.    KINDS  OF  FLYING 151 

NIGHT  FLYING — FORMATION  FLYING — STUNTING 
— IMMELMAN  TURN — NOSE  DIVING — TAIL  SPIN- 
NING  BARREL — FALLING  LEAF,  ETC. 

X     XI.    AERIAL  NAVIGATION 161 

/^ATMOSPHERIC  CONDITIONS — WINDS  AND  THEIR 
WAYS — CLOUD  FORMATIONS,  NAMES,  AND  ALTI- 
TUDES. 

XII.    COMMERCIAL  FLYING     169 

BUSINESS  POSSIBILITIES  OF  THE  AEROPLANE — 
S  SOME  CELEBRATED  AIR  RECORDS — GERMANY'S 

INITIAL  ADVANTAGE — A  HUGE  INVESTMENT — 
^  CAUSES^OFVACCIDENTS — DISCOMFORTS  OVERCOME 
* — INEXPENSIVE  FLYABOUTS — THE  SPORTS  TYPE 

— ABeHdMjGH'F-- NO   EAST  OR  WEST. 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  PAQE 

XIII.  THE  COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN 203 

THE  AMBITION  OF  THE  AGES  REALIZED — A  GIANT 
GERMAN  DIRIGIBLE  —  ZEPPELIN  ACCOMPLISH- 
MENTS— HIGH  COST  OF  ZEPPELINS — SAFETY  OF 
TRAVEL — SOME  BRITISH  PREDICTIONS — THE  FU- 
TURE OF  HELIUM — THE  LIFE-BLOOD  OF  COM- 
MERCE. 

XIV.  THE  REGULATION  OF  AIR  TRAFFIC 235   X 

IMPORTANCE  OF  SAME — LAWS  FORMED  BY  BRIT- 
ISH AERIAL  TRANSPORT  COMMITTEE  LIKELY  TO 
BE  BASES  OF  INTERNATIONAL  AERIAL  LAWS — 
COPY  OF  SAME. 

XV.    THE  TRANS-ATLANTIC  FLIGHT 251 

THE  NC'S — THE  LOSS  OF  THE  C-5 — READ*S  STORY 
—  BELLINGER'S  STORY — THE  GREAT  NAVAL 
FLIGHT — HAWKER'S  STORY — ALCOCK'S  STORY — 
TO  AND  FROM  AMERICA — THE  R-34. 


APPENDIX  I 327 

UNITED  STATES  AIRCRAFT  AND  ENGINE  PRODUC- 
TION  FOR  THE   UNITED  STATES   AIR   SERVICE. 

APPENDIX  II 354 

RECORDS   OP   ALLIED  AND   ENEMY  ACES  WITH 
NUMBER   OF   PLANES   BROUGHT  DOWN. 

APPENDIX  III 362 

NOMENCLATURE   FOR  AERONAUTICS. 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

The  NC-4  flying-boat,  showing  the  arrangement  of  the 

motors Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGE 

Observation  balloon  about  to  ascend 10 

The  Wright  flyer  after  the  epoch-making  flight  at  Kitty 

Hawk,  N.  C.,  December,  1903 20 

A  Shortt  "pusher"  seaplane  equipped  with  a  one-and-a- 
half -pounder  gun 32 

British-built  Curtiss  flying  boat,  at  Brighton,  England  .       32 

The  Farman  "Goliath"  contrasted  with  a  Farman  "Mos- 
quito"   56 

The  huge  four-motored  Handley  Page  bomber 64 

The  Martin  bomber 84 

The  pathfinding  aerial  mail  flight,  New  York-Cleveland- 
Chicago  -.  .  .  144 

The   reconstructed   De  Haviland    biplane,    showing  the 

limousine  accommodations  for  passengers 146 

Diagrams  showing  an  "aerial  skid,"  "tail  slide,"  and  the 

"spinning  dive" 154 

The  so-called  "Immelman  turn" 156 

Diagrams  illustrating  the  reversal  of  position  effected  by 
a  "loop"  and  the  execution  of  the  so-called  "Immel- 
man turn" 158 

xiii 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING   PAGE 

Interior  view  of  the  Graham  White   twenty-four-seater 

aeroplane  in  flight 170 

The  Vickers-"Vimy"  bomber 200 

The  C-5  leaving  its  hangar  at  Montauk  Point  en  route  to 

accompany  the  NC's  on  their  trans-Atlantic  flight  .     202 

The  R-34,  the  British  rigid  dirigible      222 


AIRCRAFT 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  FIRST  BALLOONS 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FREE  BALLOON — THE  CAP- 
TIVE BALLOON — THE  DIRIGIBLE — THE  BLIMP — THE 
KITE  BALLOON 

EVER  since  man  first  noticed  the  flight  of  a  bird  through 
the  air  he  has  longed  to  fly.  How  often,  during  the 
countless  ages  of  unrecorded  time,  he  attempted  to 
soar  above  the  earth  we  cannot  know.  That  he  tried 
often  and  failed  always  we  have  ample  proof;  indeed, 
the  phrase,  "might  as  well  try  to  fly,"  expressed  the 
acme  of  the  impossible.  That  many  scientific  men  for 
nearly  two  thousand  years  believed  that  eventually  a 
mechanical  means  could  be  devised  to  lift  man  off  the 
ground  like  the  wings  of  a  bird  and  to  propel  him 
through  the  air,  we  have  evidence  in  their  writings  and 
the  history  of  their  lives. 

Ancient  mythology  is  full  of  stories  of  the  heroes 
who  attempted  to  imitate  the  flight  of  the  fowls  of 
the  air.  The  earliest  efforts  of  the  aeronauts  them- 
selves appear  to  have  been  along  this  line.  Naturally 
many  of  the  experimenters  lost  their  lives.  A  mere 
enumeration  of  their  names  would  take  too  much  space 
for  this  volume. 

Perhaps  these  struggles  to  use  wings  suggested  to 
the  tight-rope  walker  Allard  the  possibility  of  per- 


forming  a  novel  stunt.  At  any  rate,  in  1660  he  suc- 
cessfully made  several  glides  for  exhibition  purposes  in 
France.  Seventeen  years  later  another  Frenchman 
named  Bosnier  also  made  spectacular  glides.  These 
experiments,  however,  led  to  the  invention  of  the 
glider,  which  finally  developed  into  the  aeroplane  or 
the  heavier-than-air  machine. 

A  glider  consists  of  a  rigid  rectangular  plane  con- 
structed of  frail  framework,  similar  to  a  kite,  and  cov- 
ered with  linen  or  cloth,  much  like  the  wing  of  a  mod- 
ern aeroplane.  This  plane  surface  might  be  a  dozen 
or  more  feet  long  and  two  or  more  feet  wide.  The 
early  experimenters  jumped  off  hills  with  this  plane 
fastened  to  their  arms  or  shoulders,  and  balancing 
themselves  in  the  centre,  glided  several  feet  over  the 
ground,  keeping  their  equilibrium  by  means  of  their 
feet.  Later  two  planes  fastened  together  like  a  box- 
kite  were  employed,  with  the  flier  stretched  out  on 
his  stomach  on  the  lower  planes.  Lillienthal  and 
even  the  Wright  brothers  learned  most  about  longi- 
tudinal and  lateral  balance  by  gliding  on  gliders  of  the 
last  type.  A  great  deal  of  sport  can  be  had  with 
these  man-carrying  kites  even  to-day. 

The  experiments  of  the  two  French  brothers,  Joseph 
and  Jacques  Montgolfier,  with  paper  bags  inflated  with 
hot  air  started  a  new  period  of  development  in  aero- 
nautics, for  the  paper  bags  suggested  the  silk  ones, 
which  were,  of  course,  much  lighter.  On  September 
19,  1783,  they  gave  an  exhibition  before  the  royal  fam- 
ily at  Versailles. 


THE    FIRST    BALLOONS  3 

The  authors  of  the  first  ascension,  the  first  actual 
step  in  the  conquest  of  the  air,  were  two  Frenchmen, 
Marquis  d'Arlandes  and  Pilatre  de  Roziers,  who  made 
the  first  ascension  near  Paris  on  November  21,  1783. 
From  that  time  on  free  ballooning  became  a  very 
popular  sport.  The  escaping  of  the  hot  air  or  gas, 
forcing  the  balloon  to  descend  too  suddenly,  led  to  the 
invention  of  the  parachute  as  a  means  of  descending 
slowly  from  the  collapsing  bag.  The  possibility  of 
using  this  type  of  balloon  for  observation  purposes  was 
realized  by  the  French,  and  the  first  recorded  battle 
that  the  captive  balloon  was  employed  in  was  at  Fleurus 
June  26,  1794,  thus  supplying  "aerial  eyes"  for  the 
French  army  to  observe  the  movements  of  the  Aus- 
trians. 

The  free  balloon  was,  however,  entirely  at  the  mercy 
of  the  winds,  and  the  captive  balloon  could  not  be 
moved  about  readily,  so  that  it  was  thus  limited  in  its 
sphere  of  observation,  except  when  attached  to  some 
movable  conveyance.  This  showed  the  necessity  of 
inventing  some  means  of  propulsion  and  steering.  The 
first  experiments  were  attempts  to  row  ordinary 
spherical  balloons,  as  you  would  a  boat,  but  the  earli- 
est record  of  any  definite  progress  being  achieved  in 
forcing  a  lighter-than-air  craft  through  the  air  was  the 
experiment  in  France  of  two  brothers  named  Robert 
in  1784.  They  constructed  a  melon-shaped  balloon, 
52  feet  long  and  32  feet  in  diameter,  made  of  proofed 
silk.  The  gas  employed  was  pure  hydrogen.  Under- 
neath this  envelope  was  suspended  a  long,  narrow  car, 


4  AIRCRAFT 

in  general  idea  not  unlike  that  used  on  some  modern 
airships;  and  three  pairs  of  oars  with  blades  made  like 
racquet-frames  covered  with  silk,  and  a  rudder  of  simi- 
lar material,  were  the  only  implements  for  navigation. 

The  two  brothers  and  their  brother-in-law  went  up 
in  the  apparatus  and  succeeded  in  describing  a  curve 
of  one  kilometre  radius,  which  showed,  at  any  rate, 
that  they  could  deviate  slightly  from  the  direction  of 
the  feeble  wind  then  prevailing. 

The  development  of  the  steam-engine  was  potent 
with  suggestions  for  aerial  navigation  of  a  dirigible. 
Thus,  on  December  24,  1852,  Henry  Gifford,  another 
Frenchman,  first  ascended  in  a  dirigible  balloon.  It 
was  spindle-shaped,  143  feet  long  and  39  feet  in  diam- 
eter. It  was  driven  by  a  3  horse-power  steam-engine 
and  an  11-foot  screw  propeller.  He  went  out  from  the 
Hippodrome  in  Paris  and  made  six  miles  per  hour 
relative  to  the  air  and  several  successful  landings. 
This  was  the  first  recorded  dirigible  flight. 

A  decade  later,  Tissandier,  with  a  spindle-shaped 
balloon,  much  on  the  lines  of  those  of  his  predecessors, 
succeeded  in  reaching  a  speed  of  eight  miles  an  hour 
with  the  aid  of  an  electric  motor  and  a  bichromate-of- 
potash  battery. 

Captain  Charles  Renard  brought  the  airship  another 
stage  toward  realization  by  building  an  envelope  with 
a  true  stream-line.  The  method  of  suspending  the  car 
was  of  the  type  adopted  by  later  builders,  namely,  to 
place  an  enormous  sheet  over  the  back  of  the  airship 
and  to  attach  suspensory  cords  to  its  edges.  This 


THE    FIRST    BALLOONS  5 

airship  had  a  cubic  capacity  of  66,000  feet,  and  was 
kept  rigid  by  means  of  an  internal  air  balloonet  or 
interior  gas-bag  which  was  confined  to  a  definite  shape 
by  an  outer  framework  or  cover.  This  balloonet  was 
kept  full  by  a  fan-blower  coupled  to  the  motor. 

The  car  was  108  feet  long,  and  really  served  as  a 
spar  employed  in  later  airships  of  what  became  known 
as  the  semirigid  type. 

An  electric  motor  was  installed,  weighing  220 
pounds,  which  developed  9  horse-power.  The  battery 
composed  of  chlorochromic  salts,  delivered  one  shaft 
horse-power  for  each  88  pounds,  and  this  great  weight 
seriously  handicapped  the  performance  of  the  airship. 
The  first  trials  were  made  in  1884,  and  apparently 
within  the  limits  of  its  propulsive  power  the  airship 
was  an  unqualified  success,  so  far  as  navigation  was 
concerned.  On  one  occasion  it  flew  around  Paris  at 
an  average  speed  of  14J^  miles  an  hour. 

As  early  as  1872  Herr  Hanlein,  in  Germany,  built  an 
airship  of  quite  reasonable  proportions,  propelled  by  a 
6  horse-power  Lenoir  gas-engine.  Apparently  the  en- 
gine was  run  on  gas  from  the  envelope.  A  speed  of  10 
miles  an  hour  or  so  was  achieved. 
,  In  1879  Baumgartner  and  Wolfert  built  an  airship 
with  a  Daimler  benzine  motor.  An  ascent  was  made  at 
Leipzig  in  1880,  but  owing  to  improper  load  distribu- 
tion the  vessel  got  out  of  control  and  was  smashed  on 
the  ground. 

The  first  rigid  dirigible  with  aluminum  framework 
was  built  by  an  Austrian  named  Schwartz  in  1897. 


6  AIRCRAFT 

This  was  the  prototype  of  the  Zeppelin,  and  no  prac- 
tical rigid  lighter-than-air  ship  could  now  be  lifted  by 
hydrogen  unless  it  had  an  aluminum  framework. 

The  invention  of  the  gasoline  engine  was  another 
tremendous  advantage  to  the  Zeppelin. 

M.  Santos  Dumont  built  an  extraordinary  collection 
of  small  airships  during  a  period  of  several  years  com- 
mencing in  1898.  His  first  effort  was  a  cylinder  of 
varnished  Japanese  silk;  82H  feet  long  and  11  feet  in 
diameter,  with  pointed  ends,  which  gave  it  a  capacity 
of  about  6,300  cubic  feet.  It  was  fitted  with  the  usual 
internal  air  balloonet  and  a  3J^  horse-power  motor- 
cycle engine  weighing  66  pounds.  The  engine  was 
fitted  to  an  ordinary  balloon  basket,  which  hung  be- 
neath the  envelope  and  drove  a  two-blade  propeller. 
The  pilot  also  sat  in  the  basket.  The  poise  of  the  ves- 
sel was  controlled  by  shifting  weights,  and  steering 
was  effected  with  a  silk  rudder  stretched  over  a  steel 
frame.  In  September,  1898,  this  miniature  airship  left 
the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Paris  in  the  face  of  a  gentle 
wind,  and  performed  all  sorts  of  evolutions  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. 

M.  Dumont's  No.  5  was  fitted  with  a  four-cylinder, 
air-cooled  motor  driving  an  enormous  propeller  of  26 
feet  in  diameter,  which  gave  a  thrust  of  120  pounds  at 
140  revolutions  per  minute.  There  is,  however,  some 
difference  between  this  number  of  revolutions  and  the 
1,400  per  minute  now  generated  by  all  the  standard 
aeronautical  motors.  Among  other  novelties  water 
ballast  was  used  and  piano  wires  replaced  the  old  type 
suspension  cords. 


THE    FIRST    BALLOONS  7 

No  account  of  the  lighter-than-air  machine  would  be 
complete  without  mentioning  the  man  after  whom  the 
Zeppelins  were  named.  As  a  matter  of  fact  Count 
Zeppelin  added  nothing  strikingly  new  to  his  airships 
—he  simply  made  them  much  larger  than  any  of  their 
predecessors;  thus  increasing  the  net  lifting  power  and 
multiplying  the  number  of  engines  and  the  horse-power. 

Count  Ferdinand  von  Zeppelin  first  began  to  experi- 
ment in  1898.  His  first  rigid  dirigible  was  410  feet  and 
the  gas-bags  contained  400,000  cubic  feet  of  hydrogen, 
and  the  net  lifting  power,  after  allowing  for  the  en- 
gines, fuel,  gear,  etc.,  was  about  two  tons.  The  frame- 
work was  of  aluminum  latticework  divided  into  seven- 
teen compartments,  fifteen  of  which  had  gas-bags.  Two 
cars  were  attached  and  in  each  was  a  16  horse-power 
German  Daimler  gasoline  motor  driving  two  propellers, 
and  the  machine  gained  a  speed  of  15  miles  an  hour, 
which  was  far  in  advance  of  any  airship  of  that  period. 

By  this  time  practically  all  the  fundamentals  of  con- 
struction of  dirigibles  had  been  incorporated  in  these 
airships.  Further  refinements  were  made,  more  en- 
gines and  balloonets  added,  and  the  length  of  the  diri- 
gible and  the  volume  of  hydrogen  gas  used  for  inflation 
was  increased,  as  was  also  the  horse-power,  but  noth- 
ing more  in  the  way  of  radical  changes  was  employed 
to  the  end  of  the  Great  War.  Therefore  a  description 
of  the  Zeppelin  which  was  brought  down  in  England 
will  serve  as  an  excellent  idea  of  the  size  of  these 
mammoth  airships. 

The  Zeppelin  forced  to  land  in  Essex  measured  from 
650  feet  to  680  feet  in  length  and  measured  72  feet 


8  AIRCRAFT 

across  its  largest  diameter.  The  vessel  was  of  the 
stream-line  form,  with  a  blunt,  rounded  nose,  and  a 
tail  that  tapered  off  to  a  sharp  point.  The  framework 
was  made  of  longitudinal  latticework  girders,  con- 
nected together  at  intervals  by  circumferential  lattice- 
work ties,  all  made  of  an  aluminum  alloy  resembling 
duraluminum.  The  whole  was  braced  together  and 
stiffened  by  a  system  of  wires,  arrangements  being  pro- 
vided by  which  they  could  be  tightened  up  when  re- 
quired. The  weight  of  the  framework  is  reckoned  to 
be  about  9  tons,  or  barely  a  fifth  of  the  total  of  50  tons 
attributed  to  the  airship  complete  with  engines,  fuel, 
guns,  and  crew.  There  were  24  balloonets  arranged 
within  the  framework,  and  the  hydrogen  capacity  was 
2,000,000  cubic  feet. 

A  cat-walk,  an  arched  passage  with  a  footway  nine 
inches  wide,  running  along  the  keel  enabled  the  crew, 
which  consisted  of  twenty-two  men,  to  move  about 
the  ship  and  get  from  one  gondola  to  another.  This 
footway  was  covered  with  wood,  a  material  which, 
however,  was  evidently  avoided  as  much  as  possible 
in  the  construction  of  the  ship.  The  gondolas,  made  of 
aluminum  alloy,  were  four  in  number;  one  was  placed 
forward  on  the  centre  line,  two  were  amidships,  one 
on  each  side,  and  the  fourth  was  aft,  again  on  the  centre 
line. 

The  vessel  was  propelled — at  a  speed,  it  is  thought, 
of  about  sixty  miles  an  hour  in  still  air — by  means  of 
six  Maybach-Mercedes  gasoline  engines  of  240  horse- 
power each,  or  1,440  horse-power  in  all.  Each  had 


THE    FIRST    BALLOONS  9 

six  vertical  cylinders  with  overhead  valves  and  water 
cooling,  and  weighed  about  1,000  pounds.  They  were 
connected  each  to  a  propeller  shaft  through,  a  clutch 
and  change-speed  gear,  and  also  to  a  dynamo  used 
either  for  lighting  or  for  furnishing  power  to  the  wire- 
less installation.  One  of  these  engines  with  its  pro- 
peller was  placed  at  the  back  of  the  large  forward 
gondola,  two  were  in  the  amidships  gondolas,  and 
three  were  hi  the  aft  gondola.  In  the  last  case  one  of 
the  propellers  was  in  the  centre  line  of  the  ship,  and 
the  shafts  of  the  other  two  were  stayed  out,  one  on 
either  side.  With  the  object  of  minimizing  air  resis- 
tance the  stays  were  provided  with  a  light  but  strong 
casing  of  two  or  three  ply  wood,  shaped  in  stream-line 
form.  The  gasoline  tanks  had  a  capacity  of  2,000  gal- 
lons, and  the  propeller  shafts  were  carried  in  ball  bear- 
ings. The  date,  July  14, 1916,  marked  on  one  of  them, 
is  thought  to  indicate  the  date  of  the  launching  or 
commissioning  of  the  vessel. 

Forward  of  the  engine-room  of  the  forward  gondola, 
but  separated  from  it  by  a  small  air  space,  was  first  the 
wireless  operator's  cabin  and  then  the  commander's 
room.  The  latter  was  the  navigating  platform,  and 
in  it  were  concentrated  the  controls  of  the  elevators 
and  rudder  at  the  stern,  the  arrangement  for  equalizing 
the  levels  in  the  gasoline  and  water  tanks,  the  engine- 
room  telegraphs,  and  the  switchboard  of  the  electrical 
gear  for  releasing  the  bombs.  Provision  was  made  for 
carrying  sixty  of  the  latter  in  a  compartment  amid- 
ships, and  there  was  a  sliding  shutter,  worked  from  the 


10  AIRCRAFT 

commander's  cabin,  which  was  withdrawn  to  allow 
them  to  fall  freely.  Nine  machine-guns  were  carried. 
Two  of  these,  of  0.5-inch  bore,  were  mounted  on  the 
top  of  the  vessel,  and  six  of  a  smaller  caliber  were 
placed  in  the  gondolas — two  in  the  forward,  one  each 
in  the  amidships  ones,  and  two  in  the  aft  one.  The 
ninth  was  carried  in  the  tail. 

The  separate  gas-bags  were  a  decided  advantage 
over  the  free  balloon  and  earlier  airships  which  carried 
all  the  gas  in  one  compartment,  for  if  the  latter  sprang 
a  leak  for  any  reason  it  had  to  descend,  whereas  the 
Zeppelin  could  keep  afloat  with  several  of  the  separate 
compartments  in  a  complete  state  of  collapse. 

Since  the  Zeppelin,  like  all  airships,  is  buoyed  up  by 
hydrogen  gas  which  is  .008  lighter  than  air,  the  diri- 
gible was  sent  up  by  the  simple  expedient  of  increasing 
the  volume  of  gas  in  the  envelope  until  the  vessel  arose. 
This  was  done  by  releasing  the  gas  for  storage-tanks 
into  the  gas-bags.  In  order  to  head  the  nose  up,  air  was 
kept  in  certain  of  the  rear  bags,  thus  making  the  tail 
heavier  than  the  forward  part,  which  naturally  rose 
first.  Steering  was  done  by  means  of  the  rudder  or  the 
engines,  or  both,  and  the  airship  was  kept  on  an  even 
keel  by  use  of  the  lateral  planes.  The  airship  could  be 
brought  down  by  forcing  the  gas  out  of  the  bags  into 
the  gas-tanks,  thus  decreasing  the  volume  and  by  in- 
creasing the  air  in  the  various  compartments. 

This  airship  had  a  flying  radius  of  800  miles  and 
could  climb  to  12,000  feet,  and  could  carry  a  useful 
load  of  four  tons  and  could  remain  in  the  air  for  fifty 


THE    FIRST    BALLOONS          11 

hours.  Without  a  doubt  it  is  one  of  the  largest  rigid 
dirigibles  ever  built. 

Owing  to  the  great  amount  of  material  used,  the  im- 
mense cost,  and  the  time  necessary  to  construct  a  Zep- 
pelin, under  the  urgent  demands  of  war,  the  British 
built  and  developed  a  small  rigid  dirigible  measuring 
between  200  and  250  feet  in  length,  buoyed  up  by  two 
balloonets,  one  front  and  back,  and  carrying  a  fuselage 
and  one  aeromotor,  and  propeller  situated  directly 
under  the  cigar-shaped  airship.  These  vessels  made 
about  fifty  miles  an  hour,  carried  two  men,  were  fitted 
with  wireless,  and  made  excellent  scouts  over  the 
North  Sea  and  waters  contiguous  to  allied  territory, 
looking  for  submarines.  These  air-vessels  were  called 
Blimps. 

The  kite  balloon  was  cigar-shaped  and  non-rigid, 
with  only  a  basket  suspended  underneath.  It  was  at- 
tached to  a  rope  and  was  lifted  by  the  gas  and  the 
wind  which  passed  under  the  fins,  which  extended  from 
the  sides  near  the  rear.  It  combined  the  principle  of 
the  free  balloon  and  the  man-lifting  kites. 

These  balloons  were  used  very  extensively  in  the 
Great  War  for  observation  purposes.  Suspended  at 
the  end  of  a  cable  attached  to  a  donkey-engine  or  a 
windlass  at  an  altitude  of  3,000  feet,  they  afforded  the 
best  observation  for  artillery-fire,  and  by  means  of  the 
telephone  in  the  basket  the  observer  could  keep  head- 
quarters well  informed  of  troop  movements  within  a 
radius  of  many  miles. 

Naturally  it  was  the  special  delight  of  the  aero- 


12         ,  AIRCRAFT 

planes  to  dive  down  on  these  stationary  balloons  and 
by  means  of  incendiary  bullets  to  ignite  the  gas.  It 
was  dangerous  work  for  the  heavier-than-air  machines, 
for  all  the  way  down  the  antiaircraft  guns  blazed 
away.  It  was  also  dangerous  work  for  the  observers 
in  the  imprisoned  balloon,  who  often  had  to  jump  with 
their  parachutes  in  order  to  escape. 

Thus  by  1918  man  had  devised  an  aircraft  that  could 
propel  him  through  the  air  faster  than  the  eagle,  far- 
ther than  the  sea-gull,  and  soar  aloft  higher  than  the 
lark !  No  wonder  he  felt  that  no  mechanical  feat  was 
impossible. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  AEROPLANE 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  PLANES — LILLIENTHAI/S  GLIDER — 
LANGLEY'S  AERODROME — SUCCESS  OF  THE  WRIGHTS 
— FIRST  AEROPLANE  FLIGHTS 

THE  evolution  of  the  heavier-than-air  flying-machine, 
like  that  of  the  lighter-than-air,  covers  a  long  period  of 
time,  and  was  fraught  with  many  difficulties  and  dan- 
gers. For  ages  many  scientific  men  played  with  the 
idea,  but  owing  to  the  lack  of  motive  power  light 
enough  to  be  mounted  on  a  glider  yet  supplying  suf- 
ficient strength  to  drive  a  set  of  planes  through  the 
air  at  45  miles  an  hour,  very  little  progress  was  made 
until  the  perfection  of  the  steam-engine  and  the  de- 
velopment of  the  gasoline  motor.  Indeed,  such  things 
as  lateral  and  longitudinal  balance  of  planes,  as  well 
as  steering  by  rudder,  could  only  be  worked  out  to  a 
successful  conclusion  by  man-carrying  gliders  moving 
at  a  sufficient  velocity  to  keep  them  off  the  ground. 
Since  no  mechanical  device  driven  by  man  could  sup- 
ply this  want,  the  science  lacked  practical  develop- 
ment until  the  last  quarter  of  a  century. 

Perhaps  the  acrobatic  tight-rope  walker  Allard,  in 
1660,  was  the  first  to  make  long  glides  during  an  ex- 
hibition of  his  profession.  But  nothing  of  material  ad- 
vantage to  the  science  was  accomplished. 

13 


14  AIRCRAFT 

In  1809  Sir  George  Cayley,  an  Englishman,  planned 
an  aeroplane  with  oblique  planes,  resting  on  a  wheeled 
chassis,  fitted  with  propellers,  motors,  and  steering  de- 
vices. The  machine  was  never  built. 

In  1843  another  Englishman,  Samuel  Henderson, 
designed  and  patented  an  "aerial  steam  carriage," 
which  was  to  be  an  aeroplane  of  immense  size  to  be 
used  for  passenger  carrying.  Like  the  former  it  was 
never  built. 

M.  Strongfellow,  another  Englishman,  designed  a 
triplane,  which  he  fitted  with  a  tail  and  two  propellers. 
A  triplane  differs  from  a  biplane  only  in  that  a  third 
plane  is  superimposed  over  the  second  plane  at  the 
same  distance  as  the  second  plane  was  above  the  first 
or  monoplane.  This  model  was  shown  at  the  exhibi- 
tion of  the  Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Britain  in 
1868.  As  in  the  case  of  previous  inventors,  nothing  in 
this  model  indicated  that  he  had  any  comprehension 
of  the  principles  of  stability  or  knowledge  of  the  lifting 
capacity  of  surfaces,  or  the  power  required  for  dynamic 
flight.  * 

In  1872  a  French  inventor,  named  Alphonse  Penaud, 
constructed  a  small  monoplane.  It  was  only  a  toy — 
two  flimsy  wings  actuated  by  a  twisting  rubber — but 
it  had  fore-and-aft  stability.  These  model  aeroplanes, 
however,  aided  the  science  materially  by  demonstrat- 
ing the  necessity  for  stability  before  planes  could  be 
steered  through  space.  Subsequently,  in  1875,  Penaud 
took  out  a  patent  on  a  monoplane  fitted  with  two 
propellers  and  having  controlling  devices.  But  this 


THE    AEROPLANE  15 

was  not  built,  principally  because  it  would  have  re- 
quired a  light  motor,  and  the  lightest  available  at  that 
time  weighed  over  60  pounds  per  horse-power.  To-day 
most  aeromotors  weigh  less  than  two  pounds  per 
horse-power. 

Louis  Pierre  Mouillard,  a  Frenchman,  who  had  ob- 
served that  large  birds  in  flight,  while  seeming  at  rest, 
could  go  forward  against  the  wind  without  a  stroke  of 
the  wings,  constructed  a  number  of  gliders  built  on 
the  principle  of  bird  wings,  and  experimented  with 
gliding.  He  published  a  work  called  "L'Empire  de 
FAir,"  which  inspired  many  late  experiments  with 
gliders. 

The  net  results  of  all  these  designs  and  experiments 
of  these  inventors  demonstrated  that  thin,  rigid  sur- 
faces of  a  certain  shape,  structure,  and  design  could' 
support  weights  when  driven  through  the  air  at  a 
sufficient  velocity.  Further  than  that  they  contributed 
practically  nothing  to  the  science  of  aviation. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  toward  the  close  of  the 
nineteenth  century  before  means  were  found  to  make 
an  aeroplane  rise  from  the  ground,  maintain  its  equi- 
librium. These  latter-day  pioneers  of  aviation  were 
divided  into  two  schools.  The  first  sought  to  achieve 
soaring  flights  by  means  of  large  kitelike  apparatus, 
which  enabled  them  to  fly  in  the  air  against  winds, 
their  machines  being  lifted  up  and  supported  by  the 
inertia  of  the  air  as  kites  are.  The  second  sought  to 
develop  power  flight,  that  is,  to  send  their  kitelike 
machines  through  the  air  at  high  speed,  being  tracted 


16  AIRCRAFT 

or  propelled  by  revolving  screws  actuated  by  motor 
power. 

The  most  prominent  experimenters  of  the  first  glider 
school  were  Otto  Lillienthal,  a  German,  P.  L.  Pitcher, 
an  Englishman,  Octave  Chanute,  and  J.  J.  Mont- 
gomery. 

Lillienthal  was  the  first  man  to  accomplish  success- 
ful flights  by  means  of  artificial  wing  surfaces.  In  1894, 
after  much  experimenting,  he  constructed  rigid  wings 
which  he  held  to  his  shoulders.  He  used  to  run 
down  hills  with  them  until  the  velocity  he  was  moving 
at  would  catch  the  air  and  lift  him  completely  off  the 
ground.  .  By  observation  of  birds  he  saw  that  their 
wings  were  arched,  which  suggested  reason  for  failures 
V  of  previous  experiments  in  this  line;  so  afterward  his 
planes  were  arched  also.  He  was  the  first  man  to  be 
lifted  off  the  ground  by  plane  surfaces,  and  to  demon- 
strate that  arched  surfaces  were  necessary  to  sustained 
flight  of  heavier-than-air  craft. 

To  the  rigid  wings  Lillienthal  fastened  a  rigid  tail 
and  this  constituted  his  glider.  There  were  no  con- 
trol levers  and  the  only  way  he  could  steer  was  by 
shifting  the  balance,  by  use  of  his  legs,  in  one  direction 
or  another.  By  means  of  an  artificial  hill  he  had  con- 
structed he  could  coast  downward  for  some  distance 
without  striking  the  ground.  He  was  unfortunately 
killed  in  one  of  these  experiments  in  1896. 

Chanute's  experiments  in  gliding  were  similar  to 
LillienthaPs,  but  they  were  conducted  on  the  sand- 
dunes  along  Lake  Michigan,  near  Chicago.  His  ap- 


THE    AEROPLANE  17 

paratus  was  more  strongly  constructed,  of  trussed 
biplane  type — a  construction  suggested  to  him  by  his 
experience  in  bridge  building,  and  one  which  persists 
to-day  as  the  basis  of  strength  in  our  present  military 
biplanes.  In  design  it  was  similar  to  a  box  kite,  and 
it  was  the  kind  which  the  Wrights  adopted  for  their 
experiments. 

The  leaders  of  the  second  school  were:  Clement 
Ader  (1890-97),  Sir  Hiram  Stevens  Maxim  (1890-94), 
and  Samuel  Pierpont  Langley  (1895-1903). 

Clement  Ader,  the  famous  French  scientist,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  French  Government,  conducted  ex- 
periments from  1890  to  1897.  In  1890  he  filled  his 
Arion,  a  boat-shaped  machine  with  two  propeller^ 
with  a  steam-engine,  but  the  apparatus  never  flew.  He 
finished  his  next  machine  in  1897  after  six  years  of 
hard  work.  It  was  large  enough  to  carry  a  man,  but, 
like  its  predecessor,  it  never  left  the  ground,  and  the 
French  Government  refused  to  support  his  experiments 
further. 

While  Ader  was  making  his  experiments  in  France, 
Sir  Hiram  S.  Maxim  was  at  work  constructing  a  large 
multiplane  for  the  English  Government,  which  he  fitted 
with  two  steam-engines  of  175  horse-power.  But  like 
Ader's  experiments  it  toppled  over  at  the  first  trial 
and  was  badly  damaged,  and  the  British  Government 
refused  further  backing. 

The  experience  of  Samuel  Pierpont  Langley  in  Amer- 
ica is  not  unlike  the  experience  of .Ader  in  France  and 
Maxim  in  England.  He  was  employed  by  the  Board 


18  AIRCRAFT 

of  Ordnance  and  Fortification  of  the  United  States 
army  to  construct  the  "  Aerodrome "  of  his  own  in- 
vention. Congress  appropriated  $50,000  for  the  pur- 
pose. Langley's  machine  was  a  tandem  monoplane,  48 
feet  from  tip  to  tip,  and  52  feet  from  bowsprit  to  the 
end  of  its  tail.  It  was  fitted  with  a  50  horse-power  en- 
gine and  weighed  830  pounds.  The  trials  of  this  aero- 
drome, two  attempts  to  launch  it,  were  made  on  Octo- 
ber 7  and  December  8,  1903.  On  both  occasions  the 
aerodrome  became  entangled  hi  the  defective  launch- 
ing  apparatus,  and  was  thrown  headlong  into  the  Po- 
tomac River — on  which  the  launching  trials  were  made. 
Following  the  last  failure,  when  the  aerodrome  was 
wrecked,  the  press  ridiculed  the  whole  enterprise,  and 
Congress  refused  to  appropriate  money  for  further  ex- 
periments. The  Langley  aerodrome,  fitted  with  a 
Curtiss  motor  and  Curtiss  controls,  flew  in  1913-14. 

As  with  experiments  of  the  first  school  they  did  not 
attain  practical  results.  The  machines  were  usually 
wrecked  at  the  first  trial  without  giving  any  clew  to 
the  nature  or  whereabouts  of  the  trouble.  Although 
Langley's  machines  were  reconstructed  and  flown  later 
this  should  not  detract  in  any  way  from  the  fame  of  the 
Wright  brothers,  Orville  and  Wilbur,  who  really  were 
the  first  to  construct  an  aeroplane  which  was  driven 
by  a  gasoline  motor,  lifting  a  man  off  the  ground,  and 
pursuing  a  steered  and  sustained  flight  through  the  air. 

The  experiments  of  Lillienthal  and  his  death  in  his 
glider  were  the  direct  incentives  to  the  Wright  brothers 
to  conduct  their  investigations  with  gliders.  The 


THE    AEROPLANE  19 

Lillienthal  way  of  balancing  the  planes  by  swinging  his 
legs  they  judged  to  be  a  poor  means  of  controlling  the 
direction  of  the  flight.  So  they  set  out  to  discover  an- 
other method  of  controlling  the  stability  of  the  planes. 
Their  experiments  began  in  the  fall  of  1900  at  Kitty 
Hawk,  North  Carolina,  as  Mr.  Henry  Woodhouse,  the 
aeronautical  authority,  has  pointed  out.  They  took  all 
the  theories  of  flight  and  tried  them  one  by  one,  only  to 
find,  after  two  years  of  hard,  discouraging  work,  that 
they  were  based  more  or  less  on  guesswork.  Thereupon 
they  cast  aside  old  theories  and  patiently  put  the  appa- 
ratus through  innumerable  gliding  tests,  ever  changing, 
adding,  modifying — setting  down  the  results;  after  each 
glide  comparing,  changing  again  and  again,  until  they 
finally  constructed  a  glider  which  was  easy  to  balance 
both  laterally  and  longitudinally.  But  in  order  to 
control  fore-and-aft  balance  they  had  to  eliminate 
Lillienthal's  method  of  swinging  his  legs  and  substi- 
tute a  horizontal  elevator.  This  elevator  was  raised 
and  lowered  by  a  lever  operated  by  the  pilot  stretched 
out  on  the  centre  of  the  lower  wing  of  the  glider.  This 
device  kept  the  glider  level  with  respect  to  the  ground. 
In  fact,  this  elevator  was  absolutely  necessary  to  pre- 
vent the  planes  from  diving  up  or  down,  for  if  the  pilot 
found  the  glider  pitching  too  much  forward,  tending  to 
dive,  he  would  tilt  the  elevator  upward  by  means  of 
the  lever,  thus  pulling  the  nose  of  the  glider  back  into 
its  proper  position.  At  first  the  Wrights  built  the 
elevator  in  front  of  the  planes  so  that  they  could  see 
and  study  its  effect.  They  soon  discovered  that  the 


20  AIRCRAFT 

control  of  the  glider  was  much  better  with  the  elevator. 
This  elevator  has  been  incorporated  as  a  standard  fin 
on  the  tail  of  the  fuselage  of  every  aeroplane  and  is 
one  of  the  chief  factors  in  steering  up  or  down. 

Having  completely  mastered  this  most  important 
step,  the  Wrights  next  took  up  the  problem  of  lateral 
control.  The  natural  tendency  of  the  glider  was  to 
flop  about  like  a  kite  with  too  light  a  tail.  In  order  to 
correct  this  lateral  instability  the  Wrights  deter- 
mined to  make  the  air  itself,  rather  than  gravity, 
supply  this  balance,  instead  of  Lillienthal's  method 
of  swinging  his  legs  from  side  to  side  by  observing 
closely  the  way  hi  which  a  pigeon  secures  its  lateral 
balance  by  varying  the  angle  of  attack  with  its  two 
wings,  whereby  one  wing  would  lift  more  forcibly  than 
the  other,  thereby  turning  the  bird  in  any  direction 
around  any  given  axis  of  flight.  In  order  to  accomplish 
this  variation  the  Wrights  made  the  ends  of  the  glider 
loose  while  the  rest  remained  rigid.  Then  by  a  system 
of  wires  operated  from  a  lever  they  could  warp  these 
wing  ends  of  the  glider,  one  to  present  a  greater  angle 
of  attack  to  the  air  and  the  other  a  smaller  angle,  just 
as-  the  pigeon  did.  In  other  words,  by  pulling  down 
the  rear  edge  of  the  tip  of  one  wing  and  by  pulling  up 
the  extreme  edge  of  the  other  the  angles  of  the  wings 
were  varied  with  respect  to  the  way  in  which  they  cut 
through  the  air  on  very  much  the  same  principles  as 
the  tail  elevator  on  the  fuselage.  Also,  if  a  flat  surface 
moves  through  the  air  horizontal  to  the  ground,  if  you 
tipped  the  rear  edge  upward  the  air  would  strike  it  on 


THE    AEROPLANE  21 

that  edge  and  have  a  tendency  to  force  it  down,  thus 
forcing  the  forward  edge  upward.  To  pull  it  in  the 
other  direction  would  cause  the  opposite  effect.  The 
Wrights  were  first  to  incorporate  this  in  a  glider  or 
aeroplane.  They  patented  it,  and  although  a  hinge, 
called  an  aileron,  was  later  attached  to  the  end  of  the 
wings  of  an  aeroplane  to  produce  the  same  effect  and 
at  the  same  time  to  allow  more  rigid  construction  of 
the  ends  of  the  wings,  nevertheless  this  idea  was  dis- 
tinctly a  Wright  discovery  and  innovation. 

But  that  was  not  all  the  Wright  brothers  did  to  make 
man-flight  over  a  sustained  and  steered  course  in  a 
heavier-than-air  machine  possible.  Directional  con- 
trol or  power  to  steer  the  glider  in  a  straight  line  or  to 
vary  it  had  not  yet  been  acquired,  so  the  Wrights  in- 
stalled a  vertical  rudder  which  they  also  operated  by 
lever,  just  as  the  rudder  on  a  power-boat  is  con- 
trolled, and  the  effect  on  directional  steering  was  the 
same.  Indeed,  passage  through  the  medium  of  the 
air  is  in  many  ways  similar  to  passage  through  water. 
Thus  the  moment  the  glider  swerved  from  right  to 
left  the  rudder  was  pulled  in  the  opposite  direction 
and  the  planes  came  back  to  the  steered  course. 

But  this  was  not  invented  at  once  nor  installed  until 
after  the  Wrights  discovered  that  whenever  the  glider 
was  in  flight  the  effect  of  warping  the  wings  to  con- 
trol the  rolling  had  a  serious  unexpected  secondary 
effect,  namely,  a  tendency  for  the  high  wing,  which 
they  desired  to  bring  down,  to  advance  faster  through 
the  air  than  the  low  wing,  and  solely  by  its  higher 


2 


AIRCRAFT 


velocity  to  develop  a  higher  lifting  capacity  and  thus1 
to  neutralize  the  benefit  of  the  warp.  After  much  ex- 
perimenting they  hit  upon  the  rudder  idea  and  that 
corrected  the  difficulty. 

Thus  the  Wrights  gained  complete  mastery  of  the 
glider;  they  could  steer  it  up  and  down,  turn  it  from 
right  to  left,  and  bring  it  back  safely  to  the  earth. 
This  is  the  basis  of  the  Wright  patents  to-day. 

The  next  thing  to  be  done  was  to  install  upon  an 
aeroplane  a  power  plant  sufficient  to  drive  it  through 
the  air  fast  enough  to  make  the  air  lift  it  off  the  ground 
and  sustain  it  in  the  "liquid  blue"  until  the  pilot  saw 
fit  to  glide  to  the  earth  again.  This  was  by  no  means  a 
simple  matter,  for  from  1900,  when  the  Wrights  began 
their  glider  experiments,  to  1903,  when  they  made 
their  first  flight,  the  gasoline  motor  was  in  its  impotent 
infancy.  They  set  about  building  a  small  light  motor, 
however,  to  install  in  their  planes. 

In  the  meantime  they  experimented  further  with 
wing  surfaces.  Langley  and  Chanute  had  proved  flat 
wings  inefficient  and  curved  wings  necessary  for  lift- 
ing capacity.  Of  course,  those  early  experimenters  did 
not  know  how  much  those  curvatures  affected  the 
climbing  angle  of  a  glider,  so  the  Wrights  set  out  to 
find  out  by  using  the  wind-tunnel  method  and  testing 
scale  models  in  the  same,  with  a  blast  of  air  generated 
by  an  engine-driven  fan.  This  tunnel  was  cylindrical 
in  form,  sixteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  smaller  mod- 
els of  wings  were  hung  in  the  centre,  the  air-blast  turned 
on,  and  the  balance  arm,  which  projected  into  the  tun- 


THE    AEROPLANE  23 

nel  and  on  which  the  wings  were  mounted,  measured 
the  air  forces  and  the  efficiency  of  the  varied  wing 
shapes  from  the  standpoint  of  rounded  wing  tips  and 
curvature. 

Data  acquired  in  experimenting  with  their  six-inch 
model  biplane  in  this  determined  them  to  build  their 
aeroplane  on  that  scale,  even  though  it  was  discovered 
that  two  wings  together  were  less  efficient  than  one 
wing  by  itself.  The  rigidity  of  two  wings  added  a 
safety  factor,  so  they  adopted  the  biplane  or  two- 
plane  surface  rather  than  the  monoplane  or  one-plane 
surface. 

In  these  experiments  the  Wrights  also  discovered 
that  all  surfaces  shaped  like  a  fish  offered  less  resistance 
to  the  air  than  blunter  obtuse  surfaces,  so  they  adopted 
the  stream-line  method  in  construction  of  struts  or 
supports  to  the  two  wings,  so  that  now  all  surfaces 
that  cut  the  air  in  the  forward  progress  of  the  planes 
are  rounded  off  so  that  the  air  slips  off  with  the  least 
resistance.  This  was  an  important  discovery,  for  later 
when  the  enclosed  fuselage  or  body  in  which  the  aviator 
sits  was  constructed  it  had  much  to  do  in  determining 
its  shape  and  design. 

Propellers  had  already  been  experimented  with  as  a 
means  of  propulsion  through  the  air.  Because  of  the 
low  horse-power  at  which  they  were  driven  very  little 
scientific  data  as  to  propeller  efficiency  had  been  com- 
piled. Because  the  first  motor  constructed  by  the 
Wrights  had  only  16  horse-power  at  maximum  speed, 
which  soon  fell  off  to  12  horse-power,  the  two  pro- 


24  AIRCRAFT 

pellers  mounted  on  their  first  machine  developed  a 
high  propeller  efficiency.  To-day  propeller  efficiency 
has  reached  approximately  70  per  cent  of  efficiency, 
and  much  study  has  been  devoted  to  the  propeller. 

Because  no  gasoline  motor  was  in  existence  light 
enough  to  mount  on  their  glider  the  Wrights  built 
their  own  in  their  shops  in  Dayton.  It  was  a  four- 
cylinder  water-cooled  upright  motor,  and  it  could  de- 
velop 12^  horse-power.  The  engine  was  mounted  on 
the  rear  o?  the  planes  of  the  glider  and  by  a  chain  drive 
propelled  the  two  blades  mounted  in  the  rear  of  the 
two  planes,  thus  making  a  pusher  type  of  aeroplane. 
The  Estimate  of  the  total  weight  of  the  machine  and 
the  operator  was  between  750  and  800  pounds. 
V  With  this  machine,  on  December  17,  1903,  Wilbur 
Wright  made  the  world's  first  sustained  steered  flight 
of  852  feet  in  59  seconds  in  a  heavier-than-air  machine. 
To  them  really  belongs  the  honor  of  having  invented 
the  aeroplane  and  of  having  demonstrated  the  feasibil- 
ity of  navigating  the  air  in  a  heavier-than-air  machine. 
It  is  true  that  the  Frenchman  M.  Bleriot  was  the 
man  who  covered  the  fuselage,  put  the  engine  in  front 
of  the  aviator,  and  constructed  a  monoplane  similar 
in  shape  to  a  bird.  Nevertheless,  it  is  the  Wrights  who 
built  the  aeroplane  which  met  all  the  fundamental 
requirements  of  flight  through  the  air. 


CHAPTER  III 
WHY  AN  AEROPLANE  FLIES 

THE    HELICOPTER — THE   ORNITHOPTER — WING   SURFACE 

FLYING     SPEED — LANDING     SPEED — EFFECT      OF 

MOTORS — THE  SEAPLANE 

THE  heavier-than-air  machines  are  divided  into  three 
classes.  The  helicopter  is  a  machine  which  theorists 
of  that  school  believe  can  fly  straight  up  into  the  sky 
because  its  air  screw  propeller  works  on  a  vertical  axis. 
This  type  of  aircraft  has  never  been  successful,  for  the 
reason  that  the  propeller  does  not  lift.  It  simply  pulls 
a  stream-lined  surface  through  the  air.  The  lifting 
must  be  done  by  planes. 

The  ornithopter  is  another  heavier-than-air  craft 
which  seeks  to  fly  by  flapping  wings  like  a  bird.  The 
effort  to  build  this  type  of  machine  is  as  old  as  human 
desire  to  imitate  the  fowls  of  the  air  and  it  has  been  as 
unsuccessful  as  the  helicopter. 

Before  we  begin  to  discuss  the  aeroplane  we  must  re- 
member that  before  a  modern  machine  leaves  the 
ground  it  must  be  moving  at  least  thirty-five  miles  an 
hour  with  respect  to  the  air.  This  forcing  of  the 
edges  of  these  broad-pitching,  curved  surfaces  through 
the  air  at  such  a  velocity  naturally  drives  the  air 
downward  and  these  particles  of  atmosphere  react  in 

25 


26  AIRCRAFT 

exactly  the  same  degree  upward,  thus  forcing  the 
planes  and  the  attached  apparatus  upward.  There- 
fore, as  long  as  the  aeroplane  rushes  through  the  air 
at  that  or  greater  speed  the  thousands  of  cubic  feet  of 
air  forced  down  beneath  the  wings  deliver  up  a  reaction 
that  results  in  complete  support.  When  an  aircraft 
fails  to  move  at  that  velocity  it  loses  "flying  speed" 
and  falls  to  the  earth.  The  net  result  of  this  reaction 
is  called  "lift,"  and  as  long  as  the  machine  sweeps  for- 
ward at  that  momentum  it  has  lift.  The  engine,  of 
course,  must  supply  this  forward  movement,  and  when 
it  stalls,  the  heavier-than-air  machine  must  glide  to  a 
landing-place  or  fall  perpendicular  to  the  ground. 

To  understand  why  a  heavier-than-air  machine  flies 
it  is  necessary  to  remember  that  air  or  atmosphere  has 
many  of  the  characteristics  of  water.  Indeed,  like  the 
ocean,  its  pressure  varies  at  different  altitudes.  At 
sea-level  a  cubic  foot  in  dry  weather  weighs  0.0807 
pounds,  but  at  a  mile  above  sea-level  it  weighs  only 
0.0619  pounds,  and  at  five  miles  0.0309  pounds  per 
cubic  foot  and  so  on  up.  Therefore  machines  designed 
to  fly  at  sea-level  often  fail  to  get  off  the  ground  at 
12,000  feet  above  the  sea  in  such  countries  as  Mexico. 

Air  also  has  motion.  Its  tendency  to  remain  mo- 
tionless is  called  inertia,  and  its  characteristic  desire  to 
reoccupy  its  normal  amount  of  space  is  known  as  its 
elasticity,  and  the  tendency  of  the  particles  of  air  to 
resist  separation  is  described  as  its  viscosity.  Thus  we 
see  that  air  has  practically  the  same  characteristics  as 
water,  only  it  is  much  lighter. 


WHY    AN    AEROPLANE    FLIES   27 

Without  going  into  a  technical  discussion  of  all  the 
forces  that  enter  into  the  flight  of  an  aeroplane  we 
must,  however,  realize  that  if  the  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  uniform  in  all  directions,  in  order  to  make 
the  air  forced  under  a  wing  or  plane  lift  more  than 
the  air  above  forces  down,  the  wing  of  the  plane  must 
be  curved  in  such  a  way  that  the  forward  motion 
of  the  edge  of  the  wing  causes  the  air  underneath 
to  force  any  particle  of  the  surface  upward,  while  the 
upper  surface  is  relieved  of  the  pressure.  This  is  done 
by  curving  the  surface  of  the  planes  so  that  the  under 
surface  is  concave  while  the  upper  part  is  almost 
convex,  like  the  outspread  wing  of  a  bird.  When  this 
wing  is  forced  horizontally  through  the  air  it  creates 
a  vacuum  immediately  behind  the  upper  or  convex 
part,  the  under  pressure  is  still  constant  and  the  sur- 
face is  lifted  upward.  That  is  why  a  plane  covered 
with  a  curved  surface  will  fly  and  a  plane  with  a  flat 
surface  will  not.  In  short,  a  curved  surface  when 
moving  through  atmosphere  causes  eddies  in  the  air, 
and  if  the  curvature  of  the  wings  is  properly  calcu- 
lated, it  leaves  a  vacuum  near  the  rear  edge  of  the 
surface  of  the  plane  and  it  climbs  upward.  The 
smaller  the  angle  the  smaller  the  lift  or  climbing  power 
of  the  plane.  Thus  a  15-degree  angle  will  lift  one  pound ; 
if  reduced  to  10  degrees  it  will  only  lift  two-thirds  of  a 
pound,  but  because  a  wing  is  curved  a  plane  could  fly 
at  several  degrees  less  than  0  degree,  but  its  "stalling" 
or  critical  angle  beyond  which  it  is  not  safe  to  go  is  15 
degrees. 


28  AIRCRAFT 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  larger  the  wing 
surface  the  larger  load  the  aeroplane  can  carry,  for  the 
lift  of  a  heavier-than-air  machine  depends  entirely  on 
the  number  of  square  feet  of  surface  in  the  plane  or 
wings.  The  larger  the  planes  the  more  power  is  re- 
quired to  force  them  through  the  air  and  the  less  easy 
they  are  to  manoeuvre  and  land.  The  Nieuports, 
Spads,  Sopwiths,  and  Fokkers,  with  their  small  wing 
spread  of  less  than  30  feet,  made  them  much  easier  to 
fly,  even  though  they  land  faster  than  the  "big  busses." 
Therefore  every  pound  of  weight  added  to  an  aero- 
plane decreases  its  speed  proportionately  and  requires 
an  equivalent  increase  in  horse-power  to  force  it  through 
the  air.  Of  course,  an  increase  of  speed  gives  an  in- 
crease in  lift,  so  by  doubling  the  speed  of  a  plane  you 
increase  the  lift  just  four  times. 

There  are,  however,  a  number  of  factors  which  tend 
to  decrease  the  progress  of  a  machine  through  the  air: 
the  head  resistance  of  the  fuselage,  the  motor,  the 
struts,  the  wires,  the  landing-gear,  etc.  These  things 
do  not  add  to  the  lift  and  are  described  as  "dead- 
head" resistance.  Stream-line,  or  the  tapering  of  all 
surfaces  which  resist  the  air,  helps  reduce  this  resis- 
tance, so  that  the  design  of  the  plane  has  much  to 
do  with  its  speed,  also  as  to  whether  the  plane  can 
climb  faster  than  fly  straight  ahead.  Naturally  the 
horse-power  of  the  motor  determines  the  flying  speed 
of  the  aeroplane  as  much  as  any  other  factor. 

To  lift  a  plane  off  the  ground  it  must  be  travelling 
at  least  35  miles  an  hour  with  respect  to  the  air,  as 


WHY    AN    AEROPLANE    FLIES   29 

we  have  pointed  out  before.  So  if  a  gale  is  blowing 
20  miles  an  hour  the  aeroplane  may  be  lifted  off  the 
ground  when  moving  no  faster  than  15  miles  an  hour 
with  respect  to  the  earth.  Likewise  unless  a  machine 
is  moving  35  miles  an  hour  it  will  lose  flying  speed  and 
fall  to  the  ground. 

Machines  do  not  all  land  at  the  same  speed.  The 
famous  Morane  monoplane  skimmed  along  the  ground 
at  anywhere  from  45  to  90  miles  an  hour.  It  is  mani- 
festly impossible  to  do  more  than  suggest  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  aeroplane  flight  here.  To  be  sure, 
the  type  of  aircraft  has,  as  we  have  indicated,  much  to 
do  with  why  and  how  it  flies.  Because  of  its  similar- 
ity to  the  bird  and  owing  to  the  lack  of  struts,  etc.,  to 
increase  the  head  resistance  the  monoplane  or  single- 
wing  plane  is  the  fastest  machine.  The  absence  of 
struts  and  the  few  bracing  wires  brings  a  greater 
strain  on  the  wings  and  increases  its  chances  of  break- 
ing. The  biplane,  with  its  two  parallel  wings  separated 
by  struts,  is  more  easily  braced  and  proportionately 
stronger.  The  lift  is  also  greater,  due  to  the  additional 
wing  surface.  The  vacuum  made  over  the  lower  wing 
is  interfered  with  by  the  upper  plane,  and  thus  neu- 
tralizes somewhat  the  lifting  and  flying  efficiency  of 
the  upper  wing.  Since  a  plane  must  reverse  all  its 
stresses  when  looping,  the  double  supports  of  the  bi- 
plane make  it  less  susceptible  to  doubling  up  and  fall- 
ing. These  are  some  of  the  reasons  for  the  popularity 
of  the  biplane. 

The  triplane  is  so  called  because  it  has  three  tiers  of 


30  AIRCRAFT 

wing  surfaces  set  one  above  the  other.  This  allows 
for  even  greater  strength  in  construction,  and  despite 
the  resistance  several  very  fast-climbing  triplanes  have 
been  built.  The  famous  Caproni  triplanes  with  three 
motors  have  a  wing  spread  of  127  feet.  Many  biplanes 
and  flying-boats  also  have  approximately  126-foot 
wing  spread.  The  well-known  Handley  Page  bomber 
and  the  NC-1,  NC-2,  NC-3,  NC-4  Naval  Flying  Boats, 
which  tried  the  Atlantic  flight,  had  a  similar  wing 
spread. 

In  the  war  the  small  aeroplane  of  the  monoplane  or 
biplane  type  with  a  small  wing  spread  and  equipped 
with  a  rotary  motor,  whose  nine  or  more  cylinders 
revolved  with  the  propeller,  or  a  small  V-type  motor, 
was  called  a  scout.  These  biplanes  seldom  had  a  wing 
spread  of  over  28  feet  and  the  horse-power  of  the  rotary 
motors  seldom  developed  more  than  150  horse-power, 
whereas  the  stationary  motors  for  these  same  machines 
generated  as  much  as  300  horse-power,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Hispano-Suiza.  These  machines  were  used  for 
fighting  because  they  made  as  high  as  150  miles  an 
hour  and  responded  so  easily  to  the  slightest  move- 
ment of  the  "joy  stick"  and,  consequently,  manoeuvred 
so  readily.  Since  trick  flying  was  absolutely  essential 
to  air  duels  these  machines  were  best  for  this  purpose 
and  for  quickly  getting  information  of  troop  move- 
ments. 

The  next  larger  size,  seating  two  men  and  driven  by 
the  same  types  of  motors  or  even  larger  twelve-cylinder 
Rolls-Royce  or  Liberty  motors,  but  with  a  wing  spread 


WHY    AN    AEROPLANE    FLIES   31 

of  from  34  to  48  feet,  was  used  for  taking  photographs, 
directing  artillery-fire,  and  general  reconnaissance  hi 
war.  The  multimotored  machines,  with  a  wing  spread 
of  anywhere  from  48  to  150  feet,  were  used  for  bombing 
at  night  or  during  the  day.  Owing  to  the  size  of  these 
machines  and  because  of  their  slow-flying  speed  they 
were  easy  to  land.  Some  of  the  scouts  weighed,  with 
petrol  and  two  hours'  fuel,  less  than  1,000  pounds, 
whereas  the  four-motored  bombers,  with  127-foot  wing 
spread,  weighed  over  six  tons  and  could  carry  a  useful 
load  of  three  tons. 

The  hydroaeroplane  does  not  differ  fundamentally 
from  the  aeroplane  as  regards  flying  principles.  In 
structure  it  may  be  a  biplane  or  triplane,  but  owing 
to  the  supports  necessary  to  carry  the  pontoons  it 
cannot  be  easily  attached  to  a  monoplane.  Structur- 
ally, it  differs  from  the  aeroplane  only  in  having  pon- 
toons or  a  boat  substituted  for  wheels  and  landing 
chassis.  Owing  to  the  surfaces  presented  by  the  pon- 
toons or  the  hull  of  the  boat,  looping  is  practically 
eliminated  and  the  spread  of  these  flying  craft  is  much 
slower  than  land  machines. 

Although  M.  Fabre  conducted  experiments  with 
aeroplanes  carrying  floats  instead  of  wheels,  Mr. 
Glenn  H.  Curtiss  was  the  first  to  successfully  construct 
and  fly  a  hydroplane.  At  the  time  of  his  flight  down 
the  Hudson  River  from  Albany  to  New  York  he 
equipped  his  plane  with  a  light  boat  to  protect  himself 
in  case  of  a  forced  landing  on  the  water.  Encouraged 
by  this  experiment  under  the  Alexander  Graham  Bell 


32  AIRCRAFT 

Aerial  Experiment  Association,  and  by  later  attaching 
a  canoe,  he  succeeded  in  landing  and  getting  off  the 
water.  Later  he  built  a  hydroaeroplane  and  flew  suc- 
cessfully at  San  Diego,  Cal.,  thus  establishing  America 
as  the  land  which  invented  and  developed  the  seaplane 
and  flying-boat. 

Structurally,  the  modern  seaplane  has  two  small 
pontoons  on  the  end  of  each  wing  and  a  small  boat  in 
the  centre,  or  sometimes  only  two  pontoons  in  all  which 
are  side  by  side  near  the  fuselage.  The  flying-boat  has 
one  large  boat  instead  of  a  fuselage,  with  a  small  pon- 
toon on  the  end  of  each  wing.  The  former  is  used  for 
fast  flying,  but  owing  to  the  air  resistance  to  the  pon- 
toons, and  especially  to  the  boats,  the  speed  cannot  be 
compared  to  that  of  the  scout  aeroplanes.  Moreover, 
they  are  much  harder  to  do  stunts  with  and  few  are 
known  to  have  looped  the  loop.  Like  the  big  land 
bombers  the  flying-boats  may  be  equipped  with  as 
many  as  three  motors.  One  of  these  has  carried  as 
many  as  fifty  passengers  at  one  time. 

Contrary  to  the  accepted  notion,  these  flying-boats 
are  very  hard  to  land  on  the  sea  because  it  is  so  diffi- 
cult to  calculate  the  position  of  the  wave  when  you 
strike — both  are  moving  so  rapidly. 

As  we  have  already  seen  that  due  to  the  fact  that  a 
heavier-than-air  machine  must  be  moving  at  least  35 
miles  an  hour  to  get  off  the  ground  or  water,  a  strong 
and  powerful  motor  is  absolutely  essential  to  make 
aeroplane  flying  possible.  We  have  already  discovered 
that  the  Wrights  had  to  construct  their  own  motor 


A  Shortt  "pusher"  seaplane  equipped  with  a  one-and-a-half-pounder  gun. 


From  a  photograph  by  Bain  News  Service. 

British-built  Curtiss  flying-boat,  at  Brighton,  England. 


WHY    AN    AEROPLANE    FLIES   33 

because  none  was  light  enough  for  an  aeroplane.  Their 
16  horse-power  single-cylinder  engine  weighed  over 
200  pounds.  To-day  the  Liberty  is  rated  at  from  400 
to  450  horse-power,  and  it  weighs  less  than  two  pounds 
per  horse-power.  An  Italian  aeronautical  engine  de- 
velops 700  horse-power,  and  one  sixteen-cylinder  Amer- 
ican motor  generates  900  horse-power.  This  shows 
the  tremendous  development  of  the  motor  for  modern 
flying. 

But,  aside  from  the  matter  of  weight  and  horse- 
power, the  aeromotor  has  been  called  upon  to  per- 
form at  altitudes  of  as  high  as  30,000  feet  as  efficiently 
as  on  the  ground.  Since  the  atmospheric  pressure  at 
that  height  weighs  a  great  deal  less  than  at  sea-level  the 
flow  of  gasoline  and  lubricants  is  very  much  decreased, 
so  that  the  efficiency  of  the  motor  may  fall  off  pro- 
portionately. To  meet  these  requirements  the  aviation 
motor  must  be  especially  designed,  and  since  the  vibra- 
tion of  the  propeller  shakes  the  frail  frame  on  which 
the  engine  is  mounted,  the  materials  must  have  the 
greatest  strength  and  resistance. 

Nevertheless,  in  both  types  of  motor,  the  rotary  air- 
cooled  and  the  stationary  V  type,  the  engineers  have 
succeeded  in  making  engines  that  would  climb  still 
higher  than  the  30,500  ceiling  already  made,  if  the 
aviators  could  stand  the  cold  or  have  enough  hydrogen 
to  keep  them  from  fainting. 

The  motor  then  is  the  heart  of  the  heavier-than-air 
machine,  and  when  it  stops  the  aeroplane  must  vol- 
plane or  fall  to  the  earth,  a  slave  to  the  laws  of  gravity. 


CHAPTER  IV 
LEARNING  TO  FLY 

EARLY  METHODS — DEVELOPMENT  OP  SCHOOLS — STUDY- 
ING STRUCTURE  OF  PLANES,  MOTORS,  THEORY  OF 
FLIGHT,  AERODYNAMICS,  MAP  READING — FRENCH 
SYSTEM — GOSPORT  SYSTEM 

PROM  the  time  of  the  first  flight  of  the  Wright  brothers 
in  1903  to  the  breaking  out^of  the  Great  War  in  July, 
1914,  the  art  of  flying  an  aeroplane  was  not  taught 
systematically  either  in  private  or  military  schools, 
primarily  because  flying  in  a  heavier-than-air  machine 
was  regarded  by  civilians  as  a  very  dangerous  sport 
and  by  military  authorities  as  hardly  more  than  a 
dubious  scout  for  locating  troop  or  train  movements. 
For  that  reason  very  few  civilians  were  induced  to' 
take  up  aviation  except  a  few  of  the  more  daring 
sportsmen.  Consequently,  civilian  flying  on  a  large 
scale  did  not  flourish. 

It  is  true,  however,  that  several  small  schools  at- 
tached to  manufacturing  plants  did  attempt  to  teach 
the  rudiments  of  flight  and  aircraft  construction. 
These  schools  did  not  prosper  because  only  a  few  pupils 
who  wished  to  give  exhibition  flights  attended,  and 
the  art  of  flying  and  aircraft  development  suffered. 

In  England  several  schools  were  started  with  in- 
different success  for  the  same  reason  as  obtained  in 

34 


LEARNING    TO    FLY  35 

America,  and  in  France  and  Germany,  aside  from  a 
few  aviators  who  were  striving  for  new  world's  rec- 
ords, most  of  the  flying  training  was  in  the  army. 
Therefore  most  of  the  great  fliers,  like  the  Wrights, 
Beachy,  Martin,  Curtiss,  Farman,  Bleriot,  Garros, 
Vedrines,  Graham-White,  Sopwith,  A.  V.  Roe — to  men- 
tion only  a  very  few — learned  to  fly  themselves.  For 
that  reason  the  toll  of  lives  taken  in  flying  was  high. 
Nevertheless,  that  did  not  stop  these  daring  fliers  from 
stunting  and  exploring  all  the  aerial  manoeuvres  possi- 
ble with  a  heavier-than-air  machine.  As  a  result 
Pegout  looped  the  loop ;  Ruth  Law  flew  at  night ;  Bleriot 
crossed  the  channel;  Garros  the  Mediterranean  Sea; 
Vedrines  flew  from  Paris  via  Constantinople  to  Cairo; 
and  in  July,  1914,  Heinrich  Oelerich  climbed  to 
26,246  feet  altitude  in  Germany,  and  in  the  same 
month  another  German  flew  for  twenty-four  hours  one 
minute,  without  stopping. 

Meanwhile  France  had  trained  several  hundred  avi- 
ators for  her  army  and  Germany  had  five  or  six  hun- 
dred trained  fliers,  including  those  in  the  Zeppelin 
service.  The  United  States  army  had  hardly  more 
than  fifty  fliers  when  the  Mexican  trouble  broke  out, 
and  only  half  a  dozen  aeroplanes  to  use  on  the  Mexican 
border. 

As  soon  as  the  war  began  and  aircraft  demonstrated 
that  the  side  which  got  control  of  the  air  could  put 
out  the  eyes  of  the  opposing  army  and  that  the  great 
struggle  might  be  decided  in  the  air,  all  the  belligerent 
nations  began  to  train  aviators  for  the  war  in  the  air. 


36  AIRCRAFT 

France  was  the  first  to  develop  a  school  of  flying, 
and  the  French  method,  with  slight  variations,  was 
adopted  by  England  and  the  United  States.  A  de- 
scription of  their  method  will  give  a  comprehensive 
conception  of  the  training  necessary  for  a  military 
flier  hi  the  war. 

Early  in  the  war  most  of  the  army,  navy,  and  pri- 
vate aviation  schools  of  the  United  States  adopted  the 
penguin  system  of  learning  to  fly.  That  method,  in- 
vented by  the  French,  consisted  of  using  as  a  training- 
machine  an  aeroplane  that  had  so  small  a  wing  spread 
or  so  weak  a  motor  that  it  merely  hopped  five  or  six 
feet  off  the  ground  when  the  motor  was  wide  open. 
The  small  wing  spread  caused  it  to  zigzag  along  the 
ground  like  a  drunken  man.  For  those  reasons,  per- 
haps, it  was  named  after  the  penguin,  which  does  not 
remain  long  on  the  ground  or  in  the  air  and  which  has 
an  irregular  gait. 

The  first  step  in  learning  to  fly  consists  hi  studying 
the  structure  of  the  aeroplane  and  of  the  aeronautical 
engine,  and  aerodynamics,  or  the  science  of  the  forces 
that  aid  or  hinder  the  flight  of  heavier-than-air  ma- 
chines. During  the  last  half-dozen  years  many  of  the 
manufacturers  of  aircraft  maintained  schools  in  order 
to  encourage  men  to  learn  the  art  of  flying,  and 
have  given  their  pupils  the  chance  to  study  at  first 
hand  the  designing,  the  building,  and  the  assembling 
of  aeroplanes  and  hydroplanes.  That  has  given  the 
pupils  a  thorough  knowledge  of  every  detail  of  the  air- 
craft— an  invaluable  asset  to  an  aviator  who  has  been 


LEARNING    TO    FLY  37 

compelled  to  make  a  forced  landing  far  from  a  repair- 
shop.  In  the  "ground"  schools  conducted  by  the 
United  States  Government  for  instructing  aviation 
officers  at  the  various  institutions,  like  Cornell,  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology,  and  Princeton,  a 
great  deal  of  time  was  devoted  to  assembling  aero- 
planes. 

Most  of  the  manufacturers  of  aircraft  in  this  coun- 
try do  not  make  the  motors  used  to  propel  their  aero- 
planes. The  aeronautical  motor  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  machines  to  build  successfully.  A  motor  that 
runs  as  smoothly  as  a  watch  on  the  ground  may  hesi- 
tate and  sputter  at  an  altitude  of  a  thousand  feet,  and 
at  three  thousand  feet  may  stop  altogether.  Engineers 
say  that  that  is  because  the  change  in  temperature  and 
in  atmospheric  pressure  causes  a  difference  in  car- 
burization.  All  these  things  the  prospective  flier  had 
to  learn  as  well  as  the  reasons  for  the  same. 

Contrary  to  the  general  notion,  the  construction  of 
the  aeronautical  motor  differs  radically  from  that  of 
the  automobile  engine.  In  point  of  weight  the  differ- 
ence is  marked.  Seldom  is  any  stipulation  made  that 
limits  the  weight  of  the  automobile  motor  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  of  horse-power;  a  few  pounds  more 
or  less  is  not  an  important  consideration  in  a  pleasure- 
car  or  a  motor-truck.  But  in  an  aeroplane  every 
ounce  of  superfluous  weight  must  be  eliminated  from 
the  engine,  which  must  nevertheless  be  strong  enough 
to  withstand  the  most  violent  strain. 

The  aeroplane  motor  is  subject  to  far  greater  strains 


38  AIRCRAFT 

than  the  automobile  motor  is.  Except  during  a  race, 
one  rarely  runs  the  engine  of  an  automobile  at  its 
maximum  speed;  the  aeroplane  motor,  on  the  con- 
trary, usually  runs  at  full  speed  from  the  moment  the 
aeroplane  starts  until  the  motor  is  shut  off  and  be- 
gins to  volplane  down  to  the  earth.  It  is  true  that  you 
can  regulate  the  aeroplane  engine  by  the  throttle  to 
run  from  as  low  as  three  hundred  revolutions  a  min- 
ute to  as  high  as  sixteen  hundred;  but  except  when 
testing  the  motor  there  is  rarely  any  reason  for  slow- 
ing it  up  while  in  the  air.  The  load  that  the  propeller 
of  an  aeroplane  carries  is  much  less  than  the  load  that 
the  shaft  of  an  automobile  carries,  but,  on  account  of 
the  frail  structure  of  the  plane,  the  vibration  is  much 
more  violent.  A  battle  plane  seldom  weighs  more 
than  two  thousand  pounds,  and  a  scouting  machine  of 
the  Nieuport  type  tips  the  scales  at  not  more  than  one 
thousand  pounds. 

For  these  reasons  aircraft  require  special  kinds  of 
motors.  The  V  type  is  so  called  because  the  cylinders 
are  set  in  the  form  of  that  letter;  the  rotary  motor  has 
the  cylinders  arranged  in  a  circle  like  the  spokes  of  a 
wheel,  and  it  revolves  on  its  shaft  like  the  propeller. 
The  rotary  motor  is  used  in  scouting  machines  because 
it  is  light.  The  revolving  engine  also  revolves  on  its 
shaft,  but  it  has  a  great  many  more  cylinders  arranged 
side  by  side  like  the  cylinders  of  an  automobile  en- 
gine. It  is  much  heavier  than  the  rotary  type;  it  may 
have  as  many  as  thirty-two  cylinders. 

Of  course,  a  knowledge  of  the  automobile  engine 


LEARNING    TO    FLY  39 

was  an  aid  to  the  prospective  aviator;  for,  except  in 
the  process  of  cooling  and  the  revolution  of  the  cyl- 
inders, the  principles  of  the  automobile  motor  and 
those  of  the  aeroplane  are  identical. 

At  aviation  schools  the  pupils  went  thoroughly  into 
all  those  things  and  supplemented  their  knowledge  by 
continually  mounting  and  dismounting  engines  and 
examining  their  most  intricate  parts.  The  schools 
also  kept  on  hand  large  aeroplane  models,  which  the 
students  took  apart  and  put  together  again.  In  the 
classroom  the  prospective  aviators  studied  the  mathe- 
matics and  the  theory  of  aerodynamics.  All  this  work 
was  very  important,  for  an  aeroplane  is  such  a  nicely 
balanced  machine  that  if  it  is  not  perfectly  con- 
structed mathematically  it  will  not  fly  safely. 

For  example,  if  the  tail  plane  or  flat,  finlike  surface 
that  projects  from  the  sides  of  the  tail  of  the  body,  or 
fuselage,  has  too  much  "incidence,"  or,  in  other  words, 
is  slanted  at  too  sharp  an  angle  downward,  it  has  a 
tendency  in  flight  to  lift  the  rear  of  the  machine  and 
to  make  it  dive.  A  seaplane,  when  properly  con- 
structed, is  so  evenly  balanced  that,  when  the  crane 
that  lifts  it  off  the  mother  ship  holds  it  suspended  in 
the  air,  the  machine  is  equipoised  like  a  bird  with 
wings  spread  in  flight.  If  the  plane  is  heavier  on  one 
side  than  on  the  other,  it  will,  while  "banking,"  or 
turning  a  corner,  slide  toward  the  centre  of  the  circle; 
that  sometimes  causes  a  "tail  spin,"  in  which  the 
machine  whirls  round  as  if  it  had  been  caught  in  a 
whirlpool.  That  is  a  very  difficult  situation,  for  an 


40  AIRCRAFT 

aviator  usually  ends  in  a  smash  at  the  bottom  of  the 
whirlpool  unless  the  pilot  has  altitude  enough  to 
flatten  out  his  plane  before  it  gets  too  close  to  the 
ground.  These  things  were  all  taught  before  the  novice 
went  up  in  the  air. 

Map  reading  and  air  navigation  were  the  next 
studies  in  military  aviation  schools.  First,  the  student 
learned  how  to  judge  the  height  of  hills  and  the  size 
of  towns  from  different  altitudes,  so  that  when  flying 
he  could  tell  what  part  of  the  country  he  was  passing 
over.  Many  of  the  schools  perched  the  prospective 
fliers  high  in  the  air  in  a  classroom  and  spread  out  a 
miniature  landscape  made  of  dirt  and  sand  on  a  map 
beneath  them  so  they  could  get  practice  in  perspective. 

Of  course,  when  an  aviator  is  lost  in  the  fog  or  above 
the  clouds  he  needs  to  use  all  the  instruments  on  board 
to  find  his  position.  For  that  purpose  drift  instru- 
ments are  mounted  on  aircraft;  those  tell  how  much 
the  air-currents,  which  have  the  same  effect  on  air- 
craft as  the  tide  has  on  a  boat,  have  driven  him  off  his 
course.  A  compass  indicates  the  direction  in  which 
he  is  travelling,  and  other  instruments  show  him 
whether  his  machine  is  climbing,  diving,  or  "banking"; 
the  aneroid  barometer  indicates  the  altitude.  It  is 
essential,  of  course,  for  the  aviator  to  know  how  to 
read  those  instruments  correctly.  Without  the  in- 
formation they  give  him,  he  might  not  know,  if  flying 
at  night  or  in  a  cloud,  that  his  craft  was  climbing  at  a 
dangerous  angle  until  wrenches  or  other  loose  imple- 
ments began  to  fall  out  of  the  machine. 


LEARNING    TO    FLY  41 

As  the  next  step  in  the  training  the  student  learns 
the  controls.  To  do  that  he  runs  the  "taxi"  or  "lawn- 
mower,"  as  the  training-machine  is  called,  up  and 
down  the  field.  The  "hopping"  of  this  machine  fa- 
miliarizes him  with  "getting  off"  and  landing,  and 
with  the  noise  of  the  propeller.  After  he  has  learned 
to  steer  his  machine  in  a  straight  line,  he  takes  longer 
"hops"  until  he  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  "joy 
stick"  which  pulls  the  elevators  or  ailerons  up  or 
down  or  operates  the  rudder. 

Soon  afterward  the  student  went  up  with  an  in- 
structor for  a  long  flight.  The  purpose  of  the  flight 
was  to  get  the  pupil  used  to  higher  altitudes  and  to 
the  motion  of  the  aeroplane,  and  to  give  him  a  chance 
to  watch  his  teacher  actually  running  the  machine. 
Strange  to  relate,  many  who  have  felt  an  uncontrol- 
lable desire  to  jump  off  high  buildings  have  no  such 
feeling  while  in  an  aeroplane.  That  is  because  they 
sit  and  look  out  horizontally  instead  of  perpendic- 
ularly downward,  and  because  they  move  at  such  tre- 
mendous speed. 

After  several  trips  of  that  kind,  the  instructor  let 
the  student  handle  the  controls  until  he  could  climb, 
dive,  and  "bank,"  or  turn  the  machine  in  the  air. 
But  the  pupil  was  not  permitted  to  land  a  machine 
until  near  the  end  of  his  course;  for  next  to  getting 
out  of  a  tail  spin,  a  dive,  or  a  side  slip,  landing  was  the 
hardest  task  in  flying.  Statistics  show  that  more 
aviators  have  been  killed  in  making  landings  than  in 
any  other  way.  Many  of  the  accidents,  of  course,  were 


42  AIRCRAFT 

caused  by  the  nature  of  the  ground,  for  when  the  en- 
gine of  the  aeroplane  stops,  the  aviator  has  to  vol- 
plane or  glide  down  wherever  he  can. 

One  of  the  difficulties  of  landing  is  owing  to  the  fact 
that  even  training-machines  cannot  land  at  a  slower 
speed  than  thirty-five  miles  an  hour.  If  the  wheels 
of  the  aeroplane,  when  they  first  touch  ground,  do  not 
skim  over  the  surface  of  the  field,  the  machine  is 
liable  to  "nose  in"  and  turn  a  somersault.  Indeed, 
that  is  why  the  pusher  type  of  training-machine,  with 
the  propeller  in  the  rear  of  the  pilot,  is  being  aban- 
doned for  the  tractor  machine,  which  has  the  pro- 
peller in  front.  If  an  accident  does  occur  with  a  tractor 
the  engine  does  not  "climb  your  back."  One  of  the 
greatest  dangers  of  flying  a  seaplane  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  engine  is  installed  not  in  the  hull  but  high 
above  the  aviators'  heads,  upon  which  it  is  apt  to  fall 
in  case  of  a  crash. 

The  student  was  next  permitted  to  fly  alone.  Most 
machines  were  so  strongly  built  that  accidents  were 
seldom  caused  by  breakage,  although,  of  course,  before 
each  flight  the  aviator  and  his  mechanic  critically  ex- 
amined his  machine  for  broken  parts.  With  a  reason- 
able amount  of  care  straight  flying  by  daylight  was 
comparatively  safe. 

In  the  French  aviation  schools,  before  the  military 
birdman  could  pass  his  final  examinations,  he  had  to 
climb  twice  to  an  altitude  of  six  thousand  feet  and 
spend  an  hour  at  a  ten-thousand-foot  altitude.  If  he 
passed  that  test  successfully,  he  had  to  fly  over  a 


LEARNING    TO    FLY  43 

triangular  course  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  and 
land  at  each  corner  of  the  triangle. 

Before  he  could  fly  his  machine  on  the  battle-front 
the  French  flier  had  to  know  how  to  loop,  to  fall  or 
dive  at  such  a  steep  angle  that  his  machine  actually 
dropped  through  the  air  for  several  hundred  feet  be- 
fore it  flattened  out — a  tremendous  strain  on  the  wings 
of  a  machine — to  side  slip  or  round  a  curve  with  his 
machine  banked  at  such  an  angle  that  it  gradually 
slid  toward  the  centre  of  the  circle,  to  climb  or  tail 
dive  at  such  a  pitch  that  the  aircraft  actually  slips 
backward  tail  foremost.  Indeed,  in  the  last  days  of 
training  the  student  was  encouraged  to  practise  all 
kinds  of  stunts  and  tricks,  for  when  an  enemy  de- 
scended on  you  from  the  clouds  above  and  was  sitting 
on  your  tail  weaving  a  wreath  of  bullets  from  a  ma- 
chine-gun round  you,  your  only  chance  of  escape  was 
by  means  of  a  loop,  a  dive,  a  side  slip,  or  a  roll. 

Another  interesting  test  a  pilot  had  to  undergo  be- 
fore he  got  his  license  to  do  battle  was  to  ascend  fif- 
teen hundred  feet,  cut  off  all  power,  and  volplane 
down  in  a  spiral  to  a  fixed  point.  To  perform  the  ma- 
noeuvre successfully  required  great  skill.  All  the  mem- 
bers of  the  famous  Lafayette  Escadrille  had  to  undergo 
those  tests  before  becoming  fighting  aviators,  and 
Americans  who  received  their  final  training  in  France 
had  to  go  through  the  same  training. 

In  our  government  flying-schools  at  Mineola  in  Long 
Island  and  the  other  flying-fields  in  Texas  and  other 
parts  of  the  country,  at  San  Diego  in  California,  the 


44  AIRCRAFT 

students  were  put  to  similar  tests  of  skill.  In  the  pri- 
vate civilian  schools,  however,  instructors  rarely  at- 
tempt to  teach  their  pupils  more  than  straight  flying. 
But  most  aviators  agree  that  every  flyer  ought  to 
know  the  "stunts"  in  order  to  meet  successfully  any 
extraordinary  situation  that  may  confront  him. 

Of  course  the  training  for  aerial  observers,  wireless 
operators,  and  photographers  was  very  different  from 
that  of  the  pilots.  In  each  case  the  instruction  was 
peculiar  to  the  science  they  were  to  practise,  and  it 
had  little  to  do  with  aviation,  only  in  so  far  as  it  was 
actually  affected  by  flying.  The  men  who  took  the 
pictures  had  to  make  a  study  of  the  science  of  photog- 
raphy. The  same  was  true  of  the  wireless  operator. 
The  observer,  however,  had  to  study  topography  and 
the  use  of  the  machine-gun,  and  target  practice  such 
as  characterized  the  work  of  the  pilot.  In  different 
countries  this  differed  with  the  methods  developed 
there.  In  England  the  pilot  often  shot  at  toy  balloons 
in  the  air  while  chasing  them  with  his  machine  or  at 
targets  on  the  ground.  The  same  method  was  em- 
ployed by  the  United  States.  Nearly  all  the  great 
aces  in  the  war  were  very  clever  shots,  and  Major 
Bishop  attributed  most  of  his  success  to  his  skill  with 
the  machine-gun. 

Finally  the  Gosport  system  of  training  aviators  was 
adopted  by  the  British  and  the  American  armies  be- 
cause it  permitted  the  training  of  tens  of  thousands  of 
fliers  at  the  same  time.  The  principles  taught  were 
the  same  as  those  enumerated  above.  The  system, 


LEARNING    TO    FLY  45 

however,  reduces  the  time  spent  on  each  operation  to 
the  minimum,  specifying  the  number  of  hours  to  be 
spent  on  each  step  in  the  course.  Here  is  a  sample  of 
the  outline  of  the  training  under  that  system: 

STANDARD  OF  TRAINING 
PART  1.    PILOTS— FLYING  WINGS 

1.  Ground  Instruction. 

1.  Buzzing  and  Panneau 

2.  Artillery  Observation 

3.  Gunnery 

4.  Aerial  Navigation 

5.  Engine  Running 

6.  Photography 

7.  Bombing  and  Camera  Obscura 

8.  Air  Force  Knowledge 

9.  Engines  and  Rigging,  Workshops  Course 
10.  Drill  and  P.  T. 

2.  Air  Tests. 

1.  Flying  Instruction 

2.  Formation  Flying 

3.  Cross  Country 

4.  Reconnaissance 

5.  Photography 

6.  Bombing  (Camera  Obscura) 

7.  Ring  Sights  and  Camera  Gun 

8.  Altitude  Test  and  Cloud  Flying 

9.  Aerial  Navigation 

3.  Appendices. 

A  Flying  Instruction 
B  Formation  Flying 
C  Cross  Country 


46  AIRCRAFT 

D  Bombing 

E  Wireless 

F  Gunnery 

G  Ring  Sights  and  Camera  Gun 

H  Aerial  Navigation 

I  Photography 

To  insure  a  certain  amount  of  continuous  practice  the  fol- 
lowing minimum  times  will  be  spent  on  ground  subjects.  It 
must  be  realized,  however,  that  efficiency,  and  not  time  spent, 
is  the  ultimate  passing  standard. 

Buzzing  and  Panneau 30  hours 

Artillery  Observation 20      " 

Gunnery 60      " 

Aerial  Navigation 20      " 

Engine  Running 3      " 

Photography 2      " 

Bombing  and  Camera  Obscura . .   1  hour 

Engines  and  Rigging 12  hours  (Workshops  Course) 

Military  Knowledge 3      " 

Lectures  will  be  given  covering — 

(1)  All  questions  on  above  subjects. 

(2)  Practical  wireless  covering  knowledge  useful  to  a  pilot. 

(3)  All  ground  signals  as  given  on  new  Artillery  Observation 

card,  40-W.O.-2584. 

Thus  every  step  in  the  education  of  the  flier  was 
provided  for  and  thus  the  United  States  turned  out 
over  10,000  aviators. 


CHAPTER  V 
AEROPLANE  DEVELOPMENT,   1903  TO   1918 

ADER'S  EXPERIMENTS — MAXIM'S  MULTIPLANE — DU- 
MONT'S  AEROPLANE — WRIGHTS*  1908  PLANE — VOI- 
SIN  PUSHER — BLERIOT'S  MONOPLANE — AVRO  TRI- 
PLANE — FARMAN'S  AILERONS — OTHER  TYPES 

ALTHOUGH  the  Wright  brothers  made  their  first  flight 
in  a  heavier-than-air  machine  in  December,  1903,  it 
was  not  until  September  15, 1904,  that  Orville  Wright, 
flying  the  Wright  biplane,  succeeded  in  making  the 
first  turn,  September  25  before  they  made  the  first 
circle,  and  October  4,  1905,  before  they  managed  to 
stay  in  the  air  for  over  half  an  hour.  Moreover,  it  was 
not  until  1908  that  they  made  their  first  public  flights. 
Long  before  the  Wrights  first  flew  at  Kitty  Hawk 
military  men  realized  the  value  of  observation  from  the 
air,  and  balloons  attached  to  cables  had  been  used  for 
that  purpose  in  the  Franco-Prussian  and  Boer  wars 
for  discovering  the  movement  and  disposition  of  troops. 
Clement  Ader,  however,  was  the  first  to  succeed  in 
securing  an  appropriation  for  the  construction  of  a 
heavier-than-air  machine  which  was  to  fly  in  any  di- 
rection like  a  bird.  In  1890  he  induced  the  French 
Government  to  appropriate  $100,000  for  the  construc- 
tion of  such  an  engine.  After  many  experiments  his 

47 


48  AIRCRAFT 

machine  failed  to  get  off  the  ground,  and  in  1897,  after 
seven  years  of  hard  work,  the  French  Government 
refused  to  appropriate  any  more  money. 

In  1905,  however,  as  soon  as  the  same  government 
heard  of  the  sustained  manoeuvred  flight  of  33  minutes, 
17  seconds,  done  by  the  Wrights,  they  negotiated  for 
the  acquisition  of  the  machine,  provided  it  could  at- 
tain a  height  of  3,000  feet.  But  at  that  time  the 
Wrights  had  not  flown  over  three  hundred  feet,  nor 
risen  above  one  hundred  feet,  and  could  not  promise  to 
fill  the  French  requirements. 

The  British  Government  had  also  given  Sir  Hiram 
Maxim  an  appropriation  for  constructing  a  flying- 
machine  about  the  same  time  that  the  French  Gov- 
ernment was  financing  Ader.  Maxim  built  one  of  the 
multiplane  type,  measuring  120  feet,  equipped  with 
two  steam-engines  of  170  horse-power  and  weighing 
7,000  pounds,  but  like  Ader's  experiment  it  never  got 
off  the  ground. 

We  have  already  noted  the  appropriations  made  by 
the  United  States  Government  to  Samuel  P.  Langley 
for  his  aerodrome.  It  was  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment, upon  the  recommendation  of  President  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  which  first  ordered  a  military  aoroplane  in 
December,  1907,  giving  definite  specifications  for  the 
same.  The  machine  was  required  to  carry  two  per- 
sons weighing  350  pounds  and  fuel  enough  for  a  125- 
mile  flight,  with  a  speed  of  at  least  40  miles  per  hour. 

The  Wrights  were  the  only  persons  to  submit  bids 
and  they  delivered  a  machine  which  Orville  Wright 


AEROPLANE    DEVELOPMENT    49 

flew  at  Fort  Myer  in  September,  1908,  making  a  new 
record  of  one  hour,  fourteen  minutes,  twenty  seconds. 
An  accident  prevented  the  fulfilling  of  the  two-pas- 
senger-carrying requirement.  In  August,  1909,  how- 
ever, the  Wright  biplane,  with  a  wing  spread  of  40  feet 
and  equipped  with  a  25  horse-power  engine,  flew  one 
hour  and  twenty-three  minutes  with  Lieutenant  Frank 
P.  Lahm  as  a  passenger. 

The  success  of  the  Wrights  naturally  stimulated  the 
French,  Alberto  Santos-Dumont,  the  Brazilian,  who 
had  experimented  successfully  with  lighter-than-air 
craft,  first  circling  the  Eiffel  Tower,  while  Louis  Ble- 
riot,  the  Voisin  brothers,  Captain  Louis  Ferber,  Henry 
Farman,  Leon  brothers,  Delagrange,  and  others  began 
to  experiment  with  aeroplanes. 

In  1906  Santos-Dumont  flew  700  feet  in  an  aeroplane 
in  one  sustained  flight  and  in  1908  the  Wrights  visited 
France  and  gave  public  demonstration  flights  at  Pau 
and  other  places.  Their  machine  was  a  biplane  driven 
by  a  small  four-cylinder  water-cooled  engine  and  two 
large  propellers.  These  were  both  actuated  by  chains 
gearing  on  the  engine-shaft,  one  chain  being  crossed  so 
as  to  make  its  propeller  revolve  in  the  direction  oppo- 
site to  the  other,  thus  giving  proper  balance  to  the 
driving  force.  Alongside  the  engine  and  slightly  in 
front  of  it  was  the  pilot's  seat,  and  there  was  also  a 
seat  for  a  passenger  in  between,  exactly  in  the  centre, 
so  that  the  added  weight  would  not  alter  the  balance. 

Unlike  present-day  aeroplanes,  this  machine  had  no 
horizontal  tail  behind  the  main  planes,  and  so  it  was 


50  ,       AIRCRAFT 

called  the  "tail-first"  type,  or  " Canard "  or  "duck," 
owing  to  its  long  projection  forward  which  resembled 
the  neck  of  that  bird.  This  type  did  not  steer  easily 
and  was  abandoned. 

THE  1908  WRIGHT  PLANE 

The  Wright  machine  had  vertical  rudders  aft,  and 
relied  on  the  two  big  elevator  planes  forward  for  its 
up  and  down  steering.  Its  lateral,  or  rolling,  move- 
ments were  controlled  by  warping  or  twisting  the  wings 
so  that  while  the  angle  of  the  wings  on  one  side  was  in- 
creased and  gave  more  lift,  the  angle  on  the  other  side 
decreased  and  gave  less  lift,  thus  enabling  the  pilot  to 
right  the  machine.  The  elevators  were  controlled  by 
means  of  a  lever  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  pilot,  the 
warp  by  a  lever  on  his  right,  while  by  waggling  the 
jointed  top  of  the  right-hand  lever  he  also  controlled 
the  rudder.  This  complicated  system  of  control  was 
very  difficult  to  master. 

In  1910  the  Wrights  attached  a  horizontal  tail  at 
right  angles  to  their  rudder,  and  hi  1911  they  dropped 
the  front  elevators  entirely.  When  the  United  States 
entered  the  war,  Orville  Wright,  as  engineer  for  the 
Dayton-Wright  Company,  supervised  the  building  of 
the  famous  DH4's,  making  several  thousands  of  them 
for  shipment  to  France. 

Unlike  many  machines  that  followed,  the  Wright 
1908  was  launched  from  a  carriage  which  ran  on  a  rail 
until  the  planes  were  lifted  into  the  air,  leaving  the 
carriage  on  the  ground.  This  same  principle  was  used 


AEROPLANE    DEVELOPMENT    51 

for  launching  planes  from  battleships,  although  it  is 
now  abandoned. 

Meanwhile  Charles  and  Gabriel  Voisin  had  success- 
fully developed  their  machine.  On  March  21,  1909, 
Mr.  Farman  flew  a  little  over  a  mile  at  Issy,  near 
Paris,  successfully  turning,  and  on  May  30  Leon  Dela- 
grange  covered  eight  miles  at  Rome,  and  finally  on 
September  21  he  flew  forty-one  miles  without  stopping 
at  Issy. 

This  Voisin  biplane  differed  from  the  Wrights'  in 
that  it  followed  the  box-kite  principle.  It  had  a  box- 
kite  tail  to  which  the  rudders  were  mounted,  while 
the  wings  had  vertical  partitions  and  the  plane  had  no 
lateral  controls,  with  the  result  that  it  could  not  fly 
in  any  kind  of  a  wind  without  coming  to  grief.  The 
first  machine  had  a  50  horse-power  Antoinette  engine 
and  the  latter  ones  a  40  horse-power  Vivinus — an  or- 
dinary automobile  engine,  heavy  but  reliable. 

In  1909  the  famous  Gnome  rotary  engine  appeared. 
It  had  11  cylinders  set  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel;  one 
was  fitted  to  a  Voisin  biplane  by  M.  Louis  Paulhan. 
There  were  several  innovations  on  this  machine.  The 
under-carriage  and  tail-booms  and  much  of  the  under- 
structure  was  made  of  steel  tubing.  Its  greatest  con- 
tribution to  the  modern  aeroplane  was  the  steering- 
wheel.  This  was  operated  by  a  rod  or  joy  stick,  which 
ran  from  the  front  elevator  to  a  wheel  in  front  of  the 
pilot  which  was  pushed  forward  to  force  the  nose  of 
the  machine  down,  and  pulled  back  to  force  it  up. 
This  made  steering  much  easier.  The  rudders  were 


52  AIRCRAFT 

worked  by  wires  leading  to  a  pivoted  bar  on  which  the 
pilot's  feet  rested.  Pushing  the  right  foot  steered  to 
the  right,  pushing  the  left  foot  steered  to  the  left — 
which  was  also  a  very  natural  motion.  This  method 
of  construction  has  been  maintained  to  this  day  on  all 
machines.  The  Voisin  was  the  first  "pusher"  type  of 
machine  with  single  propeller  in  the  rear  of  the  engine 
and  the  plane.  The  Voisin  was  always  heavy,  but  in 
1915  it  was  built  in  large  numbers  for  bombing  pur- 
poses because  the  forward  nacelle  or  nest  which  held 
the  observer  and  gunner  afforded  such  an  unobstructed 
range  of  vision  for  the  observer. 

To  M.  Louis  Bleriot  goes  the  honor  of  first  construct- 
ing monoplanes  and  of  putting  the  engine  in  the  nose 
of  the  machine  with  a  tractor  screw  in  front  of  it.  He 
also  first  designed  the  fish-shaped,  or  stream-line,  body, 
with  the  tail  and  elevator  planes  horizontally  and  the 
vertical  rudder  fixed  at  the  rear  end  of  the  fuselage. 
This  was  the  first  successful  tractor  aeroplane  with  the 
propeller  in  front. 

In  1909  M.  Bleriot  came  to  the  fore  with  his  type  XI 
machine,  the  prototype  of  all  successful  monoplanes. 
In  this  he  incorporated  the  Wright  idea  of  warping  the 
wings  to  give  lateral  control,  and  so  produced  the  first 
monoplane  to  be  controllable  in  all  directions.  With 
this  type  of  machine,  equipped  with  a  28  horse-power 
three-cylinder  Anzani  air-cooled  engine,  M.  Bleriot 
himself  flew  over  the  Channel  on  July  25,  1909.  His 
type  XI  model,  with  a  few  structural  details,  was  the 
first  to  loop  the  loop  regularly  in  1912.  After  1909, 


AEROPLANE    DEVELOPMENT    53 

when  fitted  with  Gnome  or  Le  Rhone  rotary  engines, 
the  performance  of  the  machine  was  greatly  improved. 
Since  the  Bleriot  under-carriage,  excellent  for  its  pur- 
pose, could  not  be  made  so  as  to  be  pushed  rapidly 
through  the  air,  it  was  abandoned. 

M.  Bleriot  introduced  the  stick  form  of  control,  so 
that  by  moving  the  control  stick  forward  or  backward 
the  nose  of  the  machine  moved  down  or  up.  Pushing 
the  stick  to  the  right  forced  the  right  wing  down,  mov- 
ing it  to  the  left  pushed  the  left  wing  down.  The  rud- 
der was  worked  by  the  feet  as  in  the  Voisin.  Thus  a 
natural  movement  was  given  to  all  the  controls  and  a 
great  step  forward^was  made. 

THE  1909  AND  1910  Avuo 

Meanwhile  in  England  Aylwin  Verdon  Roe  was  ex- 
perimenting under  strictly  limited  conditions.  In  1908 
he  had  got  off  the  ground  in  a  Canard-type  biplane,  and 
in  the  fall  of  that  year  he  built  a  tractor  biplane,  and  in 
the  summer  of  the  next  year  he  had  it  completed.  His 
engine  was  a  9  horse-power  J.  A.  P.  motorcycle  en- 
gine, the  lowest  power  which  has  ever  flown  an  aero- 
plane. It  was  also  the  first  successful  triplane. 

In  general  lines  and  plan  the  machine  is  the  proto- 
type of  the  modern  tractor  biplanes  and  triplanes;  it 
had  warping  wings,  tail  elevators,  and  a  rudder  astern, 
while  the  control  was  by  rudder  and  stick,  similar  to 
the  Bleriot. 

This  little  machine  was  further  developed  in  1909 
and  1910.  Later  Mr.  Roe  abandoned  the  triplane  for 


54  AIRCRAFT 

the  biplane,  which  he  fitted  with  a  Green  engine  of  the 
vertical-cylinder  type,  which  was  the  first  of  its  kind 
installed  in  an  aeroplane.  Thereafter  the  triplane 
practically  disappeared  till  it  was  revived  by  Glenn 
Curtiss,  as  well  as  British,  French,  and  German  de- 
signers during  the  war. 

They  are  great  climbers  and  attain  great  speed  in 
flying.  The  small  1910  Avro,  equipped  with  a  V  water- 
cooled  engine,  was  the  forerunner  of  the  single-seated 
fighters  of  the  last  days  of  the  war. 

Because  of  its  fast-climbing  ability  the  80  horse- 
power Avro  and  the  Sopwith  Snipe  were  used  for  the 
defense  of  such  cities  as  London  and  Paris  against 
Zeps  and  aeroplanes.  The  large  two-seater  Avro,  with 
only  an  80  horse-power  Gnome,  flew  over  80  miles  an 
hour.  As  a  war-machine  early  in  the  conflict  it  did 
excellent  work  bombing.  Later,  with  slightly  higher 
power,  it  was  a  very  good  training-machine.  Among 
two-seated  biplanes  it  marked  as  great  an  advance  as 
did  the  Sopwith  Tabloid.  Among  single-seaters,  for 
the  reason  that  it  had  been  carefully  lightened  without 
loss  of  strength  and  all  details  for  stream-line  had 
been  observed,  the  same  is  true. 

THE  FARMAN  BROTHERS'  PLANES 

While  M.  Bleriot  was  developing  his  monoplanes, 
Henry  Farman  left  the  Voisin  brothers  and  began  ex- 
perimenting on  his  own  account.  The  result  of  his 
experiments  was  first  seen  at  the  Great  Rheims  meet- 
ing when  his  Gnome-engine  biplane  appeared,  and  on 


AEROPLANE    DEVELOPMENT    55 

November  9,  1909,  he  made  a  new  world  record  of  145 
miles  in  four  hours,  eighteen  minutes,  forty-five  seconds ! 
Like  the  Wrights',  his  machine  had  a  front  elevator 
stuck  out  forward,  but  the  vertical  partitions  had  dis- 
appeared from  the  wings,  though  retained  in  the  tail. 
The  whole  machine  was  built  of  wood,  so  that  it  was 
very  much  lighter  than  the  Voisin.  Its  most  remark- 
able step  forward,  however,  was  the  use  of  balancing 
flappers,  usually  called  ailerons,  fitted  into  the  rear 
edge  of  each  wing.  These  ailerons  were  pulled  down 
on  one  side  to  give  that  side  extra  lift  when  the  machine 
tilted  down  on  that  side.  Thus  the  ailerons  had  the 
same  effect  as  warping  the  wings,  and  as  it  then  became 
unnecessary  to  twist  the  wing  itself,  it  became  possi- 
ble to  build  the  whole  wing  structure  as  a  fixed  box- 
girder  structure  of  wood  and  wire.  This  was  lighter 
and  stronger  than  was  safe  with  a  warping  wing.  For 
this  reason  aileron  control  is  used  on  all  aeroplanes  of 
to-day. 

The  Farman  biplane  was  fitted  with  the  stick  control 
used  by  M.  Bleriot,  the  stick  working  wires  fore  and 
aft  for  the  elevator  and  lateral  for  the  ailerons.  A 
rudder-bar  for  the  feet  operated  the  rudder  wires.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  present-day  idea  of  the  pusher 
biplane.  ^ 

In  1911  Farman  abandoned  the  front  elevator  and 
used  only  the  elevator  control  that  was  used  by  mono- 
planes, and  he  put  the  pilot  and  observer  out  in  front 
of  the  machine  so  that  the  range  of  vision  was  entirely 
uninterrupted.  Later  this  was  covered  and  called  a 


56  AIRCRAFT 

nacelle  or  nest  by  the  French.  Here  the  machine-gun 
was  mounted  in  the  days  of  the  World  War. 

In  1912  Maurice  Farman,  a  brother  of  Henry,  built 
a  machine  independent  of  his  brother.  He  constructed 
a  deep  nacelle,  giving  greater  comfort  to  the  pilot.  It 
had  a  forward  rudder,  and  because  long  horns  supported 
the  rudder,  it  was  called  the  mechanical  cow.  When 
this  front  elevator  was  abolished  later,  it  was  known 
as  the  "  Shorthorn."  This  was  the  prototype  of  the 
"gun  busses "  and  early  war  training-machines  in  Eng- 
land. 

In  1913  Henry  Farman's  pusher  design  began  to 
take  on  its  ultimate  form.  The  whole  machine  was 
more  compact.  The  nacelle  sheltered  the  pilot  better, 
and  the  machine  did  not  look  as  detached  from  tail 
and  elevator  as  formerly.  The  general  effect  was  more 
workmanlike  and  less  flattened  out.  This  type  was 
ultimately  combined  with  the  "  Shorthorn  "  by  Maurice 
Farman  into  a  machine  nicknamed  the  Horace,  a 
combination  of  Henry  and  Maurice.  In  1917  it  was 
used  as  a  means  of  training  and  aerial  travel  rather 
than  as  a  fighting-machine. 

THE  1909  ANTOINETTE  MONOPLANE 

The  Antoinette  monoplane  was  evolved  from  the 
early  experiments  of  MM.  Gastambide  and  Mangin, 
and  designed  by  the  famous  M.  Levavasseur,  the  en- 
gine as  well  as  the  aeroplane.  This  is  the  plane  in  which 
Herbert  Latham  failed  to  cross  the  English  Channel 
by  only  a  few  hundred  yards.  At  the  Rheims  meeting 


AEROPLANE    DEVELOPMENT    57 

in  August,  1909,  it  was  in  full  working  order,  and  dur- 
ing the  last  few  days  of  the  meet  there  was  a  continual 
fight  for  the  distance  and  duration  records  between 
Latham  of  the  Antoinette,  Henry  Farman  of  the  Far- 
man,  and  Paulhan  of  the  Voisin.  The  Antoinette  was 
much  the  fastest,  but  its  engine  always  failed  to  hold 
out  long  enough  to  beat  the  others.  However,  the 
Antoinette  proved  in  other  respects  to  be  the  fastest 
flying-machine  of  the  year. 

It  was  the  first  machine  in  which  real  care  was  taken 
to  gain  a  correct  stream-line  form.  The  win^s  were 
king-post  girders.  The  body  was  largely  a  box-girder 
composed  of  three-ply  wood.  The  tail  was  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  plane  by  uncovered  longerons. 

Unfortunately,  the  internal  structure  of  later  ma- 
chines of  this  type  was  weak,  so  that  there  were  many 
fatal  results  from  breaking  in  the  air.  The  control 
was  also  very  hard  to  learn.  One  wheel  worked  the 
warping  of  the  wings,  another  worked  the  elevator, 
and  there  was  a  rudder-bar  for  the  feet.  In  spite  of 
this  the  plane  was  very  beautiful  to  look  at. 

THE  1910  BREGUET 

The  first  successful  machine  of  this  type  was  de- 
signed by  M.  Breguet,  a  French  engineer,  who  had 
begun  experimenting  in  1908,  and  it  appeared  the  latter 
part  of  1910.  The  first  of  the  year  he  produced  a  ma- 
chine which  was  nicknamed  the  "coffee-pot,"  because 
it  was  enclosed  entirely  in  aluminum.  This  was  de- 
veloped later  into  a  bombing-machine  which  had  many 


58  AIRCRAFT 

interesting  features.  It  was  almost  entirely  con- 
structed of  steel  tubes  covered  with  aluminum  plates, 
which  led  some  to  call  it  an  armored  aeroplane,  which 
it  was  not.  The  tail,  which  was  one  piece  with  the 
rudder,  was  carried  on  a  huge  universal  joint  at  the 
tip  of  the  body,  so  that  it  swivelled  up  or  down  or 
sideways  in  response  to  the  controls.  The  wings  had 
one  huge  steel  tubular  spar,  and  as  a  result  only  one 
row  of  interplane  struts. 

The  under-carriage  had  a  shock-absorber  of  a  pneu- 
matic-spring construction,  which  was  highly  satisfac- 
tory, and  was  the  prototype  of  the  elastic-rubber 
devices. 

The  machine  was  heavy,  but  it  was  fast  and  a  great 
weight-carrier.  Because  of  minor  defects  in  detail  the 
machine  never  was  generally  used,  but  it  was  the  first 
step  toward  the  big  tractor  biplane  of  to-day.  The 
Breguet  1913  seaplane,  equipped  with  a  Salmson  en- 
gine, 200  horse-power,  was  one  of  the  first  to  utilize 
large  horse-power  and  was  thus  the  forerunner  of  the 
huge  flying-boat  of  to-day. 

THE  NIEUPORT 

In  1911  the  brothers  Charles  and  Edouard  de  Nieu- 
port  produced  the  monoplane  more  commonly  known 
as  the  Nieuport.  The  fuselage  was  a  very  thick  body, 
tapering  well  to  rear.  The  pilot  and  passenger  sat 
close  together,  with  only  their  heads  and  shoulders 
visible  above  the  fuselage.  All  unnecessary  obstruc- 
tion was  removed  to  reduce  head  resistance.  The 
under-carriage  consisted  only  of  three  V's  of  steel  tube, 


AEROPLANE    DEVELOPMENT    59 

of  stream-line  section,  connected  to  a  single  longitudi- 
nal skid,  thus  diminishing  it  to  a  noteworthy  degree. 

This  made  a  very  fast  machine.  With  only  a  seven- 
cylinder,  50  horse-power  Gnome  engine  it  travelled  70 
miles  an  hour,  and  with  a  f ourteen-cylinder,  double-row, 
50  horse-power  Gnome,  rated  at  100  horse-power  but 
actually  developing  70  horse-power,  it  reached  be- 
tween 80  and  90  miles  an  hour.  M.  Weyman,  in  the 
James  Gordon  Bennett  race  hi  the  Isle  of  Sheppey, 
made  an  average  speed  of  79.5  miles  an  hour,  so  that 
allowing  for  the  corners,  he  must  have  done  around  90 
miles  an  hour  on  straights. 

The  fast  modern  tractor  biplanes  show  the  influence 
of  the  flat  stream-lined,  all-inclusive  body  of  the  Nieu- 
port. 

The  most  remarkable  of  the  small  machines  of  1916 
was  the  Nieuport  biplane,  with  the  90  horse-power 
engine  and  later  the  110  horse-power  Le  Rhone  en- 
gine. This  was  similar  to  the  German  Fokker,  an  ex- 
cellent fighting-machine,  and  a  direct  successor  of  the 
Sopwith  Tabloid.  It  was  noteworthy  for  the  odd  V 
formed  by  the  struts  between  the  wings. 

THE  1912  B.  E.  (BRITISH  EXPERIMENTAL) 

In  1912  the  British  Government,  realizing  the  im- 
portance of  the  aeroplane  as  a  war-machine  for  scout- 
ing purposes,  established  the  Royal  Aircraft  Factory 
at  Farmborough,  with  Geoffrey  de  Havilland,  one  of 
the  early  British  experimenters,  as  designer.  Machines 
of  his  invention  have  been  called  D.  JL's.  His  1912 
aeroplane  contains  some  of  the  ideas  embodied  in  the 


60  AIRCRAFT 

Avro,  Breguet,  and  the  Nieuport.  The  machine  had 
the  lightness  of  a  Nieuport,  the  stream-line  of  a  Bre- 
guet, and  the  stability  of  an  Avro.  It  was  very  light 
for  its  size  and  capacity,  and  with  a  70  horse-power 
Renault  engine  it  attained  a  speed  of  about  70  miles 
an  hour,  and  it  responded  in  the  air  and  on  the  ground 
in  a  manner  never  before  attained.  It  was  the  proto- 
type of  a  long  line  of  Royal  Aircraft  Factory  designs, 
through  all  the  range  of  B.  E/s.on  to  the  R.  E.  series 
and  the  S.  E.  series. 

The  initials  B.  E.  originally  stood  for  Bleriot  Experi- 
mental, as  M.  Bleriot  was  officially  credited  with  hav- 
ing originated  the  tractor-type  aeroplane.  Later  B.  E. 
was  understood  to  indicate  British  Experimental. 
The  subsequent  development  into  R.  E.  indicated 
Reconnaissance  Experimental,  these  being  large  bi- 
planes with  water-cooled  engines  and  more  tank  ca- 
pacity, intended  for  long-distance  flights.  S.  E.  in- 
dicates Scouting  Experimental,  the  idea  being  that 
fast  single-seaters  would  be  used  for  scouting.  They 
were,  however,  only  used  for  fighting. 

Another  R.  A.  F.  series  is  the  F.  E.  or  large  pusher 
biplane,  descended  from  the  Henry  Farman.  The 
initials  stood  originally  for  Farman  Experimental,  but 
now  stand  for  Fighting  Experimental,  the  type  being 
variants  of  the  Vickers  Gun  Bus. 

THE  1914  B.  E.  2c 

Just  before  the  war  broke  out  the  British  R.  A.  F. 
produced  an  uncapsizable  biplane  nicknamed  "Sta- 


AEROPLANE    DEVELOPMENT    61 

bility  Jane."  Officially  she  was  known  as  the  B.  E.  2c 
and  was  another  type  of  Mr.  De  Havilland's  original 
B.  E.  Once  it  was  in  the  air  the  machine  flew  itself 
and  the  pilot  had  only  to  keep  it  on  its  course.  It  was 
so  slow  in  speed  and  manoeuvring  that  it  was  called  the 
"suicide  bus,"  yet  the  type  was  useful  for  certain  pur- 
poses. 

THE  1912  DEPERDUSSIN 

A  very  small  monoplane,  designed  by  MM.  Beche- 
reau  and  Koolhoven  for  the  Deperdussin  firm  to  com- 
pete in  the  James  Gordon  Bennett  race  at  Rheims, 
proved  to  be  the  fastest  machine  built  to  the  close  of 
1912.  It  was  a  tiny  plane  with  a  fourteen-cylinder, 
100  horse-power  Gnome  engine.  It  covered  126H 
miles  in  an  hour — the  first  time  a  man  had  ever  trav- 
elled faster  than  two  miles  a  minute  for  a  whole  hour 
— and  won  the  race.  Allowing  for  corners,  it  must 
have  flown  well  over  130  miles  an  hour  on  the  straight 
course. 

The  little  machine  was  stream-lined,  even  to  the 
extent  of  placing  a  stream-lined  support  behind  the 
pilot's  head.  Two  wheels,  an  axle,  and  four  carefully 
stream-lined  struts  made  up  the  under-carriage.  The 
plane  was  remarkable  for  having  its  fuselage  built 
wholly  of  three-ply  wood,  built  on  a  mould  without  any 
bracing  inside.  It  was  the  prototype  of  all  the  very 
high-speed  machines  of  to-day.  In  1916-17  the 
three-ply  fuselage  was  adopted  in  all  German  fighting- 
machines  and  this  country  is  gradually  appreciating 


62  AIRCRAFT 

the  improvement  and  has  made  many  fuselages  of 
three-ply  wood. 

THE  1912  CURTISS  FLYING-BOAT 

But  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  achievement  of 
1912  was  the  Curtiss  flying-boat.  Glenn  Curtiss,  who 
won  the  James  Gordon  Bennett  race  in  1909,  had  suc- 
ceeded in  rising  from  the  water  in  1911  with  a  similar 
biplane  fitted  with  a  central  pontoon  float  instead  of  a 
wheeled  under-carriage.  This  he  made  into  a  genuine 
flying-boat,  consisting  of  a  proper  hydroplane-boat, 
with  wings  and  engine  superimposed.  All  the  great 
modern  flying-boats  have  descended  from  this,  and  it 
is  the  forerunner  of  the  greafr  passenger-carrying  sea- 
planes of  the  future.  Curtiss  is  also  credited  with  the 
invention  of  ailerons. 

THE  1912  SHORT  SEAPLANE 

Another  type  of  seaplane  was  also  developed  in  1912 
when,  after  many  trials,  the  Short  brothers,  of  East- 
church,  England,  built  a  successful  seagoing  biplane, 
equipped  with  twin  floats  instead  of  the  ordinary 
landing-gear.  This,  with  only  an  80  horse-power 
Gnome  engine,  was  the  first  flying-machine  to  arise 
from  or  alight  on  any  kind  of  sea. 

THE  1912  TAUBE 

The  German  Taube  was  yet  another  development  of 
1912.  This  plane  is  so  called  because  the  wings  are 
swept  back  and  curved  up  at  the  tips  like  those  of  a 


AEROPLANE    DEVELOPMENT    63 

dove.  The  builders  were  Herr  Wels  and  Herr  Etrich, 
of  Austria,  in  1908.  Herr  Etrich  took  the  design  to 
Germany,  where  it  was  adopted  by  Herr  Rumpler. 

This  machine  was  designed  to  be  inherently  stable, 
that  is,  uncapsizable,  and  it  was  successful  to  a  great 
degree.  If  it  had  altitude  enough  it  generally  suc- 
ceeded when  falling  in  recovering  its  proper  position 
before  striking  the  ground.  Other  builders  had  striven 
for  inherent  stability,  but  had  failed  to  get  beyond  a 
certain  point.  Owing  to  the  greater  financial  support 
obtainable  in  Germany  the  1912  type  Taube  lasted, 
with  small  changes,  far  into  1915,  when  it  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  large  German  biplanes,  which  had 
greater  speed  and  carrying  power.  Several  machines 
in  Britain  and  the  United  States  have  attained  a  con- 
siderable reputation  as  having  inherent  stability. 

THE  1913  SOPWITH  TABLOID 

T.  0.  M.  Sopwith,  Harry  G.  Hawker,  the  Australian 
pilot  who  first  went  to  Newfoundland  to  fly  the  Atlan- 
tic, and  Mr.  Sigrist,  Mr.  Sopwith's  chief  engineer, 
turned  out  early  in  1913  an  extremely  small  tractor 
biplane,  equipped  with  an  80  horse-power  Gnome  en- 
gine, which  surprised  the  aeronautical  world  by  doing 
a  top  speed  of  95  miles  per  hour  and  a  climb  of  15,000 
feet  in  ten  minutes,  while  it  could  fly  as  slowly  as  45 
miles  per  hour.  It  was  achieved  by  skilfully  reducing 
the  weight,  paying  close  attention  to  the  designing  of 
the  wings,  and  by  carefully  stream-lining  external 
parts.  All  the  modern  high-speed  fighting-biplanes, 


64  AIRCRAFT 

such  as  the  "Camels,"  "Snipes,"  "Kittens/'  "Bul- 
lets," "Hawks,"  and  others,  are  descended  from  the 
original  "Tabloid,"  so  called  because  it  had  so  many 
good  points  concentrated  in  it.  Because  of  its  fast- 
climbing  ability  it  was  used  for  the  defense  of  such 
cities  as  London  and  Paris  against  the  Zeps  and  aero- 
planes. 

THE  1914  VICKERS  GUN  Bus 

The  first  genuine  gun-carrying  biplane,  designed  and 
built  by  Vickers,  London,  came  early  in  1914.  Clearly 
of  Farman  inspiration,  it  had  an  especially  strong 
nacelle  to  stand  the  working  of  a  heavy  gun.  Equipped 
with  a  100  horse-power  Gnome  engine  it  made  over  70 
miles  an  hour.  It  was  known  everywhere  as  the  "Gun 
Bus,"  and  the  name  stuck  to  the  whole  class. 

THE  1914  GERMAN  ALBATROSS  BIPLANE 

Meanwhile  the  Germans  were  busy  developing  ma- 
chines, so  that  another  development  of  1914  was  the 
Albatross  tractor  biplane,  with  a  six-cylinder  vertical 
water-cooled  Mercedes  engine  of  100  horse-power. 
This  engine  was  the  ancestor  of  the  Liberty  engine  and 
of  all  the  big  German  tractor  biplanes.  The  plane 
resembled  the  French  Breguets  and  British  Avros  of 
1910. 

THE  1915  TWIN  CAUDRON 

The  first  aeroplane  to  fly  with  consistent  success 
equipped  with  more  than  one  engine  was  the  twin- 
motored  Caudron,  with  two  110  horse-power  Le  Rhone 


114 
s  !s 


AEROPLANE    DEVELOPMENT    65 

engines.  Various  other  similar  experiments  had  been 
made  and  some  machines  were  designed  which  after- 
ward made  good.  The  French  twin  Caudron,  however, 
may  claim  to  be  the  first  twin-engined  aeroplane. 
The  engines  were  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  fuse- 
lage but  inaccessible  to  the  pilot. 

THE  1916  TWIN  HANDLEY  PAGE 

In  1916  the  British  Handley  Page  machine  with  100- 
foot  wing  spread,  driven  by  two  Rolls-Royce  motors 
of  250  horse-power,  performed  many  remarkable  bomb- 
carrying  feats  for  long  distance.  A  later  machine,  with 
127-foot  wing  spread  and  four  engines,  flew  via  Cairo 
and  Bagdad  to  Delhi,  India,  and  still  another  carried 
a  piano  over  the  Channel.  A  large  fleet  of  these  bomb- 
ers were  ready  to  attack  Berlin  when  the  armistice 
was  signed. 

THE  1917  SPAD 

The  Spad  was  designed  by  M.  Bechereau,  of  Deper- 
dussin  fame.  It  and  the  Albatross  D3  model  were  both 
descended  from  the  Deperdussin,  the  Nieuport,  and 
the  Tabloid.  The  Spad  superseded  the  Nieuport  as  a 
fighting  scout  on  the  West  Front  because  of  its  superior 
speed  when  driven  by  a  Salmson  engine. 

THE  1917  D.  H.  4 

The  1917  D.  H.  4  was  designed  by  De  Havilland, 
and  the  S.  E.  5  was  built  by  his  successors  at  the  Royal 
Aircraft  Factory.  Both  were  descendants  of  the  B.  E.; 


66  AIRCRAFT 

as  is  the  Bristol  Fighter,  built  by  the  British  and  Co- 
lonial Aeroplane  Company,  of  British,  and  designed  by 
Captain  Barnwell. 

The  German  Gotha,  which  bombed  London  so  often, 
was  a  descendant  of  the  Caudron  and  the  Handley 
Page  twin-engine  planes. 

In  1917  Italy  produced  her  famous  three-engined 
Caproni  triplane,  driven  by  three  Fiat  1,000  horse- 
power engines.  It  had  150-foot  wing  spread  and  was 
used  for  bombing  purposes.  S.  I.  A.  and  Pomilio  were 
smaller  fighting-machines,  equipped  with  Fiat  engines. 
All  of  these  machines  were  exhibited  in  the  United 
States  and  many  Caproni  triplanes  were  built  in  this 
country. 


CHAPTER  VI 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  AEROPLANE  FOR  WAR 
PURPOSES 

GERMAN  AERIAL  PREPAREDNESS — PRIZES  GIVEN  FOR 
AERONAUTICS  BY  VARIOUS  GOVERNMENTS — FIRST 
USE  OF  PLANES  IN  WAR — FIRST  AIRCRAFT  ARMAMENT 

THERE  is  no  gainsaying  the  fact  that  Germany,  in  her 
eagerness  to  develop  every  engine  of  war  further  than 
any  other  nation,  so  that  when  "  Der  Tag  "  came  she 
would  be  mechanically  superior  and  thus  able  to  quickly 
crush  any  adversary,  instantly  saw  the  advantage  that 
control  of  the  air  would  give  her. 

For  that  reason,  as  soon  as  the  Wrights  began  to 
demonstrate  in  France,  in  1908,  the  feasibility  of  the 
aeroplane  as  a  scout,  the  Germans  realized  the  im- 
portance of  the  aeroplane  as  an  adjunct  of  the  dirigible, 
whose  development  they  had  already  been  committed 
to  since  1900,  when  Count  Ferdinand  Zeppelin  built 
his  first  rigid  lighter-than-air  craft.  Since  aeronautic 
motors  had  to  be  used  on  both  types  of  aircraft,  and 
since  the  speed  and  flying  radius  depended  on  the 
efficiency  of  the  engine,  the  Germans  set  about  to  de- 
velop them. 

The  French  War  Department  had  in  1910  laid  down 
rules  and  regulations  for  a  competition  to  develop 
aeronautics.  They  specified  that  the  aeroplane  and 

67 


68  AIRCRAFT 

engine  should  be  made  in  France,  and  that  the  dis- 
tance of  flight  must  at  least  be  186  miles,  carrying  660 
pounds  of  useful  load,  or  three  passengers,  and  to  at- 
tain an  altitude  of  1,640  feet.  The  sum  of  100,000 
francs  was  to  be  paid  for  the  machine  which  accom- 
plished this  feat,  and  20  other  machines  of  the  same 
type  were  to  be  bought  for  40,000  francs  each.  In 
the  lists  of  that  year  34  aeroplanes  of  as  many  designs 
were  built,  but  only  8  passed  the  tests.  Weyman's 
Nieuport  with  a  Gnome  engine  attained  an  average 
speed  of  116  miles  an  hour. 

As  a  result  of  this  contest  England,  Germany,  and 
Austria  established  aeroplane  meets  for  1912.  Eng- 
land offered  10,000  pounds  in  prizes.  Prince  Henry 
of  Prussia  urged  the  German  Government  to  appro- 
priate $7,000,000  for  military  aeronautics.  On  January 
27,  1912,  the  Kaiser  offered  50,000  marks  in  prizes 
to  develop  aeromotors.  The  Aerial  League  of  Ger- 
many started  a  public  subscription  which  brought  in 
7,234,506  marks.  The  purpose  of  the  league  was  to 
train  a  large  number  of  pilots  for  a  reserve  and  to  en- 
courage general  development  of  aeronautics  in  Ger- 
many. 

This  proved  to  be  a  great  success,  for  by  the  end  of 
1913,  370  additional  German  pilots  had  been  trained, 
making  a  total  of  over  600.  Meanwhile,  German  con- 
structors increased  from  20  to  50  in  the  same  period 
of  time. 

The  development  of  aeronautics  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Aerial  League  induced  the  Reichstag  to  appro- 


THE    AEROPLANE    FOR    WAR    69 

priate  $35,000,000  to  be  expended  during  the  next  five 
years  for  military  aeronautics.  This  was  by  far  the 
most  liberal  appropriation  made  for  war  aeronautics 
by  any  government  in  Europe. 

Under  this  encouragement,  by  the  middle  of  July, 
1914,  the  German  aviators  broke  all  the  world's  records, 
making  a  total  of  over  100  new  records  of  all  kinds. 
The  non-stop  endurance  record  of  24  hours,  12  minutes 
was  made  by  Reinhold  Boehm,  and  Heinrich  Oelrich 
attained  a  new  ceiling  at  26,246  feet.  Herr  Landsman 
covered  1,335  miles  in  one  day,  making  the  world's 
record  for  distance  covered  by  one  man  in  one  day. 
Roland  Garros  held  the  world's  record  of  19,200  feet 
before  Otto  Linnekogel  made  21,654. 

The  stream-lining  of  aircraft  and  the  development 
of  the  Mercedes  and  Benz  gasoline  motors  under  the 
incentive  to  win  the  Kaiser's  prize  was  the  big  factor 
in  this  aeronautic  progress.  Not  only  did  the  Ger- 
mans make  new  aviation  records,  but  they  also  won 
the  Grand  Prix  race  in  Paris,  1913,  with  engines  the  de- 
tails of  which  were  most  jealously  guarded,  defeating 
the  best  English  and  French  machines.  Indeed,  the 
Mercedes  motor  used  on  Zeppelin,  aeroplane,  and  auto- 
mobile was  the  same  in  fundamentals.  — 

To  Americans  who  are  familiar  with  the  difficulties 
we  experienced  in  the  early  days  of  our  entrance  into 
the  World  War  in  getting  quantity  production  with 
the  Liberty  motor,  it  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
the  Germans  had  three  large  factories  filled  with  tools, 
dies,  gigs,  etc.,  for  quantity  production  of  the  Benz, 


70  AIRCRAFT 

Mercedes,  and  Maybach  engines,  that  Germany  be- 
lieved that  she  had  control  of  the  air  in  June,  1914. 
She  had  already  broken  all  the  world's  records  in  road- 
racing,  as  well  as  in  the  air,  and  she  had  more  than  a 
score  of  Zeppelins  and  over  500  standardized  planes. 

Naturally,  the  preparations  of  the  Germans  did  not 
fail  to  attract  attention  in  France.  Races  and  aero- 
nautic contests  at  military  manoeuvres,  besides  aero 
expositions,  were  held  by  the  French,  and  the  success 
of  the  Paris-Madrid  and  Paris-Rome  race  in  1911  in- 
fluenced the  French  Chamber  of  Deputies  to  appropri- 
ate 11,000,000  francs  for  military  aviation.  The 
Kaiser's  prize  and  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia's  recom- 
mendation of  $7,500,000  appropriation  for  German 
aviation  caused  the  Paris  Matin  to  start  a  national 
subscription  by  donating  50,000  francs  for  an  aero- 
nautic fund  similar  to  that  subscribed  by  Germany. 

In  1911  Mr.  Robert  J.  Collier  loaned  his  aeroplane 
to  the  United  States  Government  to  be  used  for  scout 
duty  on  the  Mexican  frontier. 

In  February,  1912,  during  the  Italian-Turkish  War, 
the  Italians  used  one  aeroplane  for  locating  the  posi- 
tion of  the  Arabs,  and  several  bombs  were  dropped 
without  any  attempt  to  do  any  more  than  guess  at 
the  place  where  they  would  land.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
they  fell  far  from  their  objectives,  and  served  no 
military  purpose  further  than  to  frighten  the  horses. 
In  locating  the  distribution  of  troops,  however,  this 
aeroplane  was  most  valuable. 

For  that  reason  many  military  men  even  thought 


THE    AEROPLANE    FOR    WAR    71 

that  the  aeroplane,  because  of  the  velocity  at  which 
it  moved,  could  not  be  of  much  value  other  than  for 
scouting,  and  as  no  guns  had  been  successfully  mounted 
on  aircraft  before  the  World  War,  the  aeroplane  was 
not  regarded  as  an  offensive  weapon.  Indeed,  that 
was  one  of  the  developments  of  the  war. 

The  first  attempts  to  mount  a  machine-gun  on  an 
aeroplane  were  made  in  France  on  a  Morane  mono- 
plane. In  order  to  shoot  over  the  propeller  a  steel 
scaffolding  was  erected,  and  the  pilot  was  supposed 
to  stand  up  to  sight  his  gun.  This  was  impracticable, 
and  the  structure  retarded  the  vision  of  the  pilot  and 
the  speed  of  the  aeroplane. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  war  pilots  seldom  flew  over 
3,000  feet  high,  and  since  there  were  no  machine-guns 
mounted  in  a  practical  way,  the  pilots  could  only  con- 
tent themselves  with  firing  revolvers  at  one  another. 
The  only  thing  they  had  to  fear  was  rifle-shot  and  the 
trajectory  of  artillery.  The  few  antiaircraft  guns 
had  no  greater  range  than  3,000  feet,  and,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  most  of  the  reconnaissance  work  done  at  Ver- 
dun in  the  first  six  months  of  1916  was  at  3,000  feet 
altitude. 

The  first  historic  record  of  a  machine-gun  mounted 
on  an  aeroplane  was  in  the  despatch  telling  of  the 
death  of  the  French  aviator  Garaix  on  August  15, 1914, 
by  the  aerobus  Paul  Schmitt.  Garaix  had  200  rounds 
of  ammunition.  In  December  of  that  year  the  160 
horse-power  Breguet  piloted  by  Moineau  mounted  a 
machine-gun.  The  French  pusher  Voisins,  with  no 


72  AIRCRAFT 

obstruction  of  vision  to  the  gunner  in  the  nacelle,  af- 
forded an  excellent  opportunity  for  the  use  of  machine- 
guns.  Moreover,  most  of  the  aeroplanes  brought  down 
in  the  early  days  of  the  war  were  the  victims  of  engine 
trouble  or  shots  from  rifles  on  the  ground.  A  staff 
report  of  October  5,  1914,  of  the  Germans  relates  that 
the  French  aviator  Frantz,  flying  a  Voisin  with  his 
mechanic  Quenault,  shot  down  a  German  Aviatic 
plane  with  two  aviators  from  1,500  metres  altitude, 
killing  the  two  Germans.  For  this  feat  Sergeant  Frantz 
received  the  Military  Medal,  the  first  decoration  given 
a  French  flier  in  the  war. 

On  October  7  Captain  Blaise  and  Sergeant  Gaubert, 
in  a  Maurice  Farman,  with  a  rifle  shot  down  Lieutenant 
Finger,  a  Boche  who  had  defended  himself  with  a  re- 
volver. Captain  Blaise  expended  eight  shots  before 
he  got  the  German  flier. 

The  first  recorded  equipment  of  a  machine-gun  on 
a  German  machine  was  on  October  25,  1914,  when  a 
Taube  near  Amiens  opened  fire  on  a  Henry  Farman 
machine  piloted  by  Corporal  Strebick  and  his  me- 
chanic, who  were  directing  artillery-fire.  The  Germans 
first  used  a  Mauser  gun  for  their  aeroplanes. 

Meanwhile,  the  need  for  having  a  machine-gun  fixed 
stationary  on  the  aircraft  and  armed  by  manoeuvring 
the  aeroplane  became  more  evident.  Roland  Garros, 
who  was  the  first  to  fly  across  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
from  France  to  Tunis,  Africa,  mounted  a  gun  to 
shoot  through  the  propeller  on  February  1,  1915.  In 
order  to  protect  the  blades  from  the  bullets,  he  had 


THE    AEROPLANE    FOR    WAR    73 

the  propeller-tip  covered  with  steel.  Thus,  when  the 
bullets  hit,  they  were  deflected.  Only  7  per  cent  hit 
the  blades,  however. 

This  was  a  crude  way  of  mounting  the  gun,  and  it 
was  Garros's  mechanician  who  worked  out  the  method 
of  gearing  up  the  machine-gun  so  that  it  shot  its  600 
bullets  between  the  revolutions  of  the  propeller.  This 
enabled  the  so-called  single-seater  scout  tractors,  with 
propeller  in  front,  to  fly  armed  with  a  machine-gun 
mounted  over  the  hood  of  the  engine,  directly  in  front 
of  the  aviator.  It  was  also  the  beginning  of  the  use 
of  the  aeroplane  as  a  fighter  in  aerial  duels  and  in  con- 
tact patrol  of  later  days  when  it  descended  to  attack 
troops  in  the  trenches  and  trains  on  the  tracks. 

January  1,  1915,  was  the  date  of  mounting  the  first 
Lewis  machine-gun  on  a  Nieuport  aeroplane  to  shoot 
over  the  propeller.  The  Germans  copied  this  with 
their  Parabellum  light  gun,  but  it  was  not  till  July, 
1915,  that  the  German  Fokker  first  appeared  with  a 
synchronized  machine-gun  mounted  on  it.  Since  a 
propeller  revolves  1,400  times  a  minute,  a  blade  passes 
the  nose  of  the  gun  2,800  times  a  minute,  and  the  ma- 
chine-guns were  geared  to  shoot  about  400  shots  a 
minute,  so  that  one  shot  passes  through  to  every  seven 
strokes  of  the  propeller-blade.  Sometimes,  however, 
as  many  as  two  guns  were  synchronized  to  shoot 
through  the  same  propeller.  A  push-button  on  the 
steering-bar  fires  the  gun  while  the  pilot  keeps  his  eye 
on  the  enemy  through  the  telescope  in  front  of 
him. 


74  AIRCRAFT 

The  Lewis  gun  is  an  air-cooled,  gas-operated,  maga- 
zine-fed gun,  weighing  26  pounds  with  the  jacket  and 
18  pounds  without.  The  facility  with  which  the  gun 
can  be  manoeuvred  into  any  position  or  angle  makes 
it  a  very  efficient  aeroplane  gun.  The  ability  of  this 
gun  to  function  automatically,  and  the  speed  with 
which  it  operates,  is  due  to  the  use  of  a  detachable 
drum-shaped,  rotating  magazine  which  holds  47  or  97 
cartridges  each.  When  the  magazine  is  placed  in  posi- 
tion it  needs  no  more  attention  until  all  the  cartridges 
are  empty,  when  the  magazine  is  snatched  off  and  an- 
other is  stuck  on.  This  gun  is  the  invention  of  Colonel 
Isaac  Lewis,  a  retired  American  army  officer. 

The  Vickers  is  an  English  gun,  belt-fed,  water-cooled, 
recoil-operated.  It  can  shoot  from  300  to  500  shots 
a  minute.  Since  all  the  shells  are  in  a  belt  it  can  be 
fired  continuously  until  the  500  shots  have  been  used 
up.  Its  water-cooled  devices  were  dispensed  with  on 
the  aeroplanes. 

The  German  Maxim  is  similar  to  the  Vickers.  The 
Lewis  shoots  .33  and  Vickers  and  Maxim  .30  ammuni- 
tion. In  the  beginning  of  the  war  the  Colt  gas-operated 
gun  was  also  used  on  aeroplanes,  as  were  also  the 
Hotchkiss  and  Benet-Mercier.  The  first  gun  shooting 
400  shots  a  minute  was  similar  to  the  Vickers. 

Owing  to  the  ease  with  which  the  cotton-belts  con- 
taining the  cartridges  on  Vickers  guns  jam,  it  was 
used  only  for  fixed  positions  in  front,  whereas  the  Lewis 
was  employed  in  the  observer's  nacelle  and  other  posi- 
tions which  required  sudden  change  in  the  aim.  As 


THE    AEROPLANE    FOR    WAR    75 

many  as  half  a  dozen  machine-guns  were  mounted  on 
some  of  the  large  bombers  in  the  last  days  of  the  war. 

Many  attempts  to  mount  cannon  on  aircraft  have 
been  made,  but  owing  to  the  recoil,  the  room  necessary 
for  mounting  and  manipulating,  and  the  speed  with 
which  the  gunner  and  the  target  move  through  the 
air,  not  much  success  was  attained. 

Captain  Georges  Guynemer,  the  first  great  French 
flier  to  down  more  than  fifty  Hun  planes,  is  credited 
with  mounting  a  one-pounder  on  his  Nieuport,  single- 
seater.  It  could  not  shoot  through  the  propeller,  so  it 
was  arranged  to  shoot  through  the  hub.  The  gun  was 
built  into  the  crank-case,  the  barrel  protruding  two 
inches  beyond  the  hub.  It  is  said  that  Guynemer 
brought  down  his  forty-ninth,  fiftieth,  fifty-first,  and 
fifty-second  victims  with  this  type  of  gun;  but  be- 
cause of  the  fifty  pounds  extra  weight  above  that  of 
the  machine-gun  it  was  an  impediment. 

Attempts  to  use  on  aeroplanes  the  Davis  non-recoil 
gun,  invented  by  Commander  Davis  of  the  United 
States  navy,  have  not  been  entirely  successful.  The 
two-pounder  is  10  feet  long,  weighs  75  pounds,  and 
shoots  1.575  shell  with  a  velocity  of  1,200  feet  a  second. 
The  3-inch  Davis  fires  a  12-pound  shell  and  weighs 
130  pounds. 

Several  other  guns  have  been  used,  and  with  the 
increase  in  the  size  of  planes  there  ought  to  be  much 
increase  in  the  size  of  aeroplane  guns. 


CHAPTER  VII 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  LIBERTY  AND 
OTHER  MOTORS 

DEBATE  IN  REGARD  TO  ORIGIN  OF  LIBERTY  MOTOR — 
LIBERTY-ENGINE  CONFERENCE,  DESIGN,  AND  TEST — 
MAKERS  OF  PARTS — HISPANO-SUIZA  MOTOR — ROLLS- 
ROYCE — OTHER  MOTORS 

THERE  has  been  more  discussion  of  the  Liberty  motor 
than  any  other  motor  made  during  the  war.  This  was 
due  to  the  publicity  given  to  the  motor  by  the  publica- 
tion of  a  romantic  story  of  the  motor,  issued  from 
Washington  over  the  signature  of  Secretary  of  War 
Baker,  to  the  effect  that  the  motor  was  conceived  in 
a  few  days,  and  built  and  perfected  within  a  month. 
Of  course  every  engineer  knows  that  that  could  not 
be  done,  and  it  took  at  least  six  months  before  the 
Liberty  engine  was  perfected,  and  this  was  long  after 
the  Creel  Publicity  Bureau  in  Washington  issued  its 
statement. 

As  we  have  pointed  out  elsewhere,  if  the  Aircraft 
Production  Board  had  taken  the  patterns  of  a  standard 
motor  like  the  Hispano-Suiza,  which  had  been  flown 
for  nearly  three  years  under  all  kinds  of  war  condi- 
tions, and  which  was  being  built  in  this  country,  and 
if  they  had  ordered  gigs,  dies,  and  tools,  and  when 
we  entered  the  war  had  requested  our  engineers  to 

76 


THE    LIBERTY    MOTOR          77 

follow  Chinese  patterns  in  the  making  of  the  same,  the 
dies,  gigs,  etc.,  could  have  been  made  at  once  instead  of 
months  later,  and  many  American-made  aircraft  could 
have  been  operating  over  the  lines  when  the  Amer- 
icans began  to  fight  at  Chateau-Thierry,  and  not 
months  later,  as  was  the  case.  Undoubtedly  this  delay 
cost  the  lives  of  thousands  of  American  soldiers,  and 
set  back  the  Allied  victory  by  just  so  much.  The  fail- 
ure to  deliver  aircraft  on  schedule  was  the  reason  why 
General  Pershing  had  to  demand  haste  in  the  produc- 
tion of  machines.  Regardless  of  the  fact  that  the  aero- 
plane motor  is  radically  different  from  the  automobile 
motor,  because  it  must  be  much  lighter,  nevertheless 
automobile  men  were  called  in  by  the  Aircraft  Produc- 
tion Board  to  design  the  Liberty  motor,  and  many  of 
the  engine-building  companies  that  had  been  con- 
structing aeronautical  motors  were  not  consulted. 

After  the  Liberty  engine  was  completed  a  lively  de- 
bate was  instituted  as  to  which  of  the  two  companies 
that  was  represented  at  the  designing  of  the  engine 
deserved  the  most  credit  for  the  job.  One  of  the  auto- 
mobile companies  advertised  the  fact  that  they  were 
responsible  for  the  Liberty  motor,  and  the  other  com- 
pany immediately  replied,  trying  to  prove  that  because 
they  had  built  successful  motors  before  the  war  that 
they  were  the  real  designers  of  the  motor. 

To  be  sure,  no  one  would  have  objected  to  the 
construction  of  a  Liberty  motor  on  the  side,  but  to 
delay  the  construction  of  motors  in  quantity  until  Sep- 
tember, 1917,  put  the  United  States  back  just  six 


78  AIRCRAFT 

months  in  production,  for  a  number  of  factories  were 
already  producing  parts  for  Rolls-Royce  engines,  and 
the  Wright-Martin  Company  had  been  building  the 
Hispano-Suiza  motor  since  January,  1916. 

Be  that  as  it  may,  the  facts  regarding  the  Liberty 
motor  appear  to  be  that  General  Squier,  E.  A.  Deeds, 
Howard  E.  Coffin,  S.  D.  Waldon,  of  the  Aircraft  Pro- 
duction Board,  called  in  to  consultation  on  May  29, 
1918,  E.  J.  Hall,  chief  engineer  of  the  Hall-Scott  Motor 
Company,  builders  of  a  number  of  4,  6,  8,  and  12  cylin- 
der aeroplane  engines,  and  Jesse  G.  Vincent,  experi- 
mental engineer  of  the  Packard  Motor  Car  Company, 
who  had  just  completed  a  design  and  an  experimental 
aeroplane  engine,  which  had  never  up  to  that  time  been 
hi  a  plane. 

Both  these  gentlemen  were  in  Washington  attempt- 
ing to  interest  Signal  Corps  officials  in  the  aeroplane 
engine  each  had  designed. 

LIBERTY-ENGINE  CONFERENCE 

A  five-day  conference  between  Mr.  Hall  and  Mr. 
Vincent,  called  by  Mr.  Deeds  and  Mr.  Waldon  of  the 
Aircraft  Production  Board  to  consider  aeroplane-en- 
gine design  and  production,  was  held.  The  two  en- 
gineers got  together  in  designing  a  standardized, 
directly  driven,  five-bearing  crank-shaft  engine  of 
8  cylinders,  and  one  of  12  cylinders,  with  a  seven- 
bearing  crank-shaft.  After  a  session  of  twenty  hours' 
work  in  a  room  at  the  New  Willard  Hotel,  in  Wash- 
ington, during  which  meals  were  served  the  two  men, 


THE    LIBERTY    MOTOR          79 

and  both  lived,  worked,  and  slept  in  the  apartments 
of  Mr.  Deeds,  a  new  8-cylinder  230  horse-power  aero- 
plane engine  was  laid  out,  described,  and  drawings  of 
transverse  and  longitudinal  sections  were  made  by 
Vincent  and  Hall  themselves.  This  was  the  first 
Liberty  motor  designed. 

On  the  morning  of  May  30,  1917,  near  the  close  of 
the  designing  session,  Mr.  Vincent  dictated  a  joint 
report  to  the  Aircraft  Production  Board.  The  salient 
points  and  a  rough  draft  had  been  agreed  upon  the 
night  before.  It  was  dated  May  31,  1917,  and  signed 
jointly  by  E.  J.  Hall  and  Jesse  G.  Vincent. 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  May  31, 1917. 
AIRCRAFT  PRODUCTION  BOARD, 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

Gentlemen:  At  your  request  we  have  made  a  careful  study 
of  the  aircraft  motor  situation  and  hasten  to  submit  our  report 
as  follows: 

In  order  to  get  this  report  in  your  hands  promptly  we  have 
condensed  it  as  much  as  possible  and  have  covered  the  essen- 
tials only. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  there  are  a  number  of  good  motors 
for  training-machines  available,  we  have  disregarded  this  type 
of  motor  and  have  confined  our  attention  strictly  to  the  high- 
efficiency,  low-weight  per  horse-power  type,  such  as  is  necessary 
at  the  front. 

In  order  that  any  motors  that  are  built  by  this  country  may 
be  of  any  value  when  received  at  the  front,  it  is,  of  course, 
absolutely  necessary  that  their  efficiency  be  brought  up  to  or 
a  little  beyond  the  best  now  available  in  Europe.  This,  of 
course,  made  it  necessary  for  us  to  know  just  what  has  been 
accomplished  in  Europe.  The  French  and  English  Commis- 


80  AIRCRAFT 

sion  has  enabled  us  to  obtain  this  information  by  answering 
our  questions  very  clearly  and  completely. 

From  information  obtained  from  these  gentlemen  and  from 
other  sources,  we  believe  that  the  Loraine  Dietrich  is  the  com- 
ing motor  in  Europe.  This  motor  has  not  been  built  in  large 
quantities  as  yet,  but  some  thirty  had  been  constructed  and 
carefully  tested  out  at  sea-level  and  also  at  about  6,000  feet 
elevation.  The  important  facts  about  this  motor  are  as  follows : 

Eight  cylinders:   120  mm.  bore  by  170  mm.  stroke. 

Cylinders  made  of  steel  with  water-jackets  welded  on.  Motor 
is  direct-driven  and  develops  250  horse-power  at  1,500  r.  p.  m., 
and  270  horse-power  at  1,700  r.  p.  m.  The  weight  of  the  bare 
motor  is  240  kilos,  or  approximately  528  pounds,  while  the 
weight  of  the  motor  complete  with  radiator  and  water  is  305 
kilos,  or  671  pounds.  There  seems  to  be  a  reasonable  doubt 
regarding  the  exact  weight  of  the  bare  motor,  as  while  the 
French  Commission  gave  us  the  figure  of  528  pounds,  informa- 
tion from  other  sources  indicates  a  weight  of  552  pounds;  prob- 
ably some  intermediate  figure  is  more  nearly  correct,  but  in 
any  event  the  motor  gives  a  horse-power  for  approximately 
two  pounds  of  weight  when  figured  at  its  maximum  output  of 
270  horse-power. 

After  obtaining  this  information  and  considering  the  matter 
very  carefully,  we  next  investigated  the  matter  of  testing  such 
a  motor,  as  we  knew  that  a  motor  of  this  type  could  not  be 
run  at  full  power  for  long  periods  of  time  without  developing 
serious  trouble.  Here  again  the  French  Commission  gave  us 
valuable  information.  They  stated  that  in  using  a  motor  of 
this  type  it  is  only  run  at  full  power  for  short  periods  of  time 
while  climbing  or  fighting,  and  that  all  other  times  it  is  run  at 
speeds  200  to  300  r.  p.  m.  slower.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
motor  is  built  to  run  under  these  conditions,  it  is,  of  course, 
necessary  to  test  it  under  similar  conditions,  and  they  stated 
when  trying  out  a  new  model  of  motor  it  is  their  practice  to 
mount  a  propeller  which  will  just  hold  the  motor  down  to  maxi- 


THE    LIBERTY    MOTOR  81 

mum  speed  under  full  throttle.  The  motor  is  then  run  for 
fifty  hours,  in  periods  of  six  to  eight  hours  each,  but  the  motor 
is  not  run  up  to  full  speed  for  more  than  a  total  of  ten  hours 
during  this  entire  period,  nor  is  it  run  more  than  thirty  minutes 
at  any  single  time  under  this  condition.  The  other  forty  hours' 
running  is  under  throttled  conditions,  turning  the  same  pro- 
peller 200  to  300  r.  p.  m.  less  than  maximum  speed. 

This  information  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  as  it  enables 
us  to  reduce  all  factors  of  safety  and  make  possible  the  light- 
weight per  horse-power  now  being  obtained  in  Europe. 

After  obtaining  this  information  we  immediately  laid  down 
a  proposed  motor  which  we  believe  can  be  produced  promptly 
in  large  quantity  in  this  country.  Built  carefully  out  of  proper 
materials,  this  motor  will  have  approximately  the  following 
characteristics  and  be  as  good,  or  a  little  better,  than  the  Loraine 
Dietrich,  which  is  not  as  yet  really  available  abroad. 

In  laying  down  this  motor  we  have  without  reserve  selected 
the  best  possible  practice  from  both  Europe  and  America. 
Practically  all  features  of  this  motor  have  been  absolutely 
proved  out  in  America  by  experimental  work  and  manufacturing 
experience  in  the  Hall-Scott  and  Packard  plants,  and  we  are, 
therefore,  willing  to  unhesitatingly  stake  our  reputations  on 
this  design,  providing  we  are  allowed  to  see  that  our  design  and 
specifications  are  absolutely  followed. 

The  motor  is  to  be  of  the  eight-cylinder  type,  with  cylinders 
set  at  an  included  angle  of  45  degrees.  The  cylinders  are  of  the 
individual  type,  made  out  of  steel  forgings  with  jackets  welded 
on.  The  bore  is  five  inches  and  the  stroke  seven  inches,  giving 
a  piston  displacement  of  1,100  cubic  inches.  The  crank-shaft 
is  of  the  five-bearing  type  with  all  main  bearings  2%  inches  in 
diameter,  and  all  crank-pin  bearings  2*4  inches  in  diameter. 
The  connecting-rods  are  of  the  I-beam  straddle  type.  This 
motor  is  of  the  direct-driven  type  with  a  maximum  speed  of 
1,700  r.  p.  m.  This  motor  will  have  a  maximum  output  of  275 
horse-power  at  1,700  r.  p.  m.  It  will  weigh  525  to  550  pounds, 


82  AIRCRAFT 

but  we  feel  very  sure  of  the  lower  figure.  It  will  have  a  gasoline 
economy  of  .50  pounds  of  fuel  per  horse-power  hour  or  better; 
it  will  have  an  oil  economy  of  .04  pounds  of  oil  per  horse-power 
hour  or  better.  Complete  with  water  and  radiator,  this  motor 
will  not  weigh  more  than  675  pounds,  if  a  properly  constructed 
radiator  is  used  and  placed  high  above  the  motor. 

To  obtain  the  above-mentioned  weights  it  will  be  necessary 
to  use  the  fixed  type  of  propeller  hub  which  has  been  thoroughly 
proved  out  by  Hall-Scott  practice.  In  order  to  obtain  the 
above-mentioned  weights  it  will  also  be  necessary,  as  mentioned 
above,  to  use  the  very  best  material,  workmanship,  and  heat 
treatment. 

Complete  detail  and  assembly  drawings,  as  well  as  parts  list 
and  material  specifications,  can  be  completed  at  the  Packard 
factory  under  our  direction  in  less  than  four  weeks.  We  believe 
that  a  sample  motor  can  also  be  completed  in  approximately 
six  weeks  if  money  is  used  without  stint.  As  soon  as  the  draw- 
ings, specifications,  and  sample  motor  have  been  finished,  com- 
plete information  would,  of  course,  be  available  so  that  any 
high-grade  manufacturer  could  either  make  parts  for  this  motor 
or  manufacture  it  complete. 

In  laying  down  this  design  we  have  had  in  mind  the  extreme 
importance  of  interchangeability,  as  a  well-laid,  comprehensive 
programme  which  has  for  its  base  interchangeability  of  im- 
portant parts,  such  as  cylinders,  will  speed  output  and  reduce 
ultimate  cost  to  an  astonishing  extent.  Europe  is  suffering 
right  now  from  lack  of  uniformity  of  design,  but  it  is  too  late 
for  them  to  change  their  plan.  We,  however,  can  take  a  leaf 
out  of  their  book  and  start  right. 

In  the  design  which  we  have  laid  down,  the  cylinder,  for  in- 
stance, can  be  used  to  make  four,  six,  eight,  and  twelve  cylinder 
motors.  As  this  is  the  most  intricate  part  to  make,  immense 
facilities  could  be  provided  to  produce  them  in  large  quantities 
for  the  use  of  many  concerns  who  could  manufacture  the  bal- 
ance of  the  motor.  Nearly  all  small  parts  and  numerous  large 


Rated 
Horse-power 

Maximum 
Horse-power 

Weight 

Weight  per 
Horse-power 

110 

135 

375 

2.7 

165 

205 

490 

2.3 

225 

275 

535 

1.9 

335 

410 

710 

1.7 

THE    LIBERTY    MOTOR          83 

and  important  ones  would  also  be  interchangeable.  This 
would  not  only  speed  up  production  but  would  be  of  the  utmost 
importance  in  connection  with  repairs  and  replacements.  A 
full  line  of  motors  made  according  to  this  plan  would  line  up 
about  as  follows: 


Type 

4 

6 

8 
12 

Respectfully  submitted, 

(Signed)  J.  G.  VINCENT. 
(Signed)  E.  J.  HALL. 

On  June  4  Hall  and  Vincent  finished  a  layout  of 
an  8-cylinder  engine,  and  presented  the  drawings  and 
received  an  order  to  build  ten  sample  engines,  and  on 
June  8  the  Packard  Company  arranged  for  pattern- 
making,  production  work,  etc. 

This  motor  after  intensive  work  on  detail  drawings 
was  put  into  preliminary  production.  The  first  one 
was  delivered  to  Washington,  July  3,  1917.  In  the 
making  of  the  sample  engine  Mr.  Vincent's  company 
placed  its  factory  organization  at  the  disposal  of  the 
government,  and  through  Mr.  Vincent's  untiring  efforts 
and  enthusiasm  the  first  motor  was  completed  within 
the  sixty  days. 

The  other  companies  which  aided  in  the  work  of 
building  this  motor  were: 

The  General  Aluminum  and  Brass  Manufacturing 
Company  of  Detroit  made  bronze-backed,  babbitt-lined 
bearings  and  aluminum  castings. 


84  AIRCRAFT 

The  Cadillac  Motor  Car  Company  of  Detroit  made 
the  connecting-rods,  connecting  upper-end  bushings, 
connecting-rod  bolts,  and  rocker-arm  assemblies.  The 
Cadillac  Company  had  perfected  the  design  of  connect- 
ing-rods of  the  forked  or  straddle  type,  and  had  been 
using  them  for  several  years  in  their  8-cylinder  engines. 

The  Parke  Drop  Forge  Company  of  Cleveland  made 
the  crank-shaft  forgings.  These  forgings  completely 
heat-treated  were  produced  in  three  days,  simply  be- 
cause Mr.  Hall  gave  them  permission  to  dig  out  the 
Hall-Scott  dies  which  were  used  in  making  the  first 
Liberty  crank-shaft  forgings. 

Hall-Scott  Motor  Car  Company  of  San  Francisco 
supplied  all  the  bevel-gears  out  of  its  stock  for  the 
standardized  line  of  Hall-Scott  4,  6,  8,  and  12  cylinder 
aeroplane  engines. 

The  L.  0.  Gordon  Company  of  Muskegon  made  the 
cam-shafts. 

The  Hess-Bright  Manufacturing  Company  of  Phila- 
delphia made  the  ball-bearings. 

The  Burd  High  Compression  Ring  Company  of 
Rockford,  111.,  supplied  the  piston-rings  out  of  stock 
made  up  for  the  Hall-Scott  line  of  standardized  aero- 
plane engines,  for  which  it  had  perfected  a  piston-ring. 

The  Aluminum  Castings  Company  of  Cleveland 
supplied  the  die-cast  alloy  pistons,  and  machined  them 
up  to  grinding,  as  they  had  been  engaged  in  making 
them  for  several  years  for  the  Hall-Scott  line  of  stand- 
ardized aviation  engines. 

The  Rich  Tool  Company  made  the  valves. 


THE    LIBERTY    MOTOR          85 

The  Gibson  Company  of  Muskegon  made  the 
springs. 

The  Packard  Company  made  the  patterns  and  sev- 
eral dies  in  order  to  obtain  drop-forgings  of  the  proper 
quality.  It  also  machined  the  crank-shafts. 

After  the  preliminary  tests  passed  by  the  8-cylinder 
engine,  August  25,  1917,  Government  Inspector  Lynn 
Reynolds  said  "that  the  design  has  passed  from  the 
experimental  stage  into  the  field  of  proven  engines." 
The  machine  was  tested  at  Pike's  Peak,  Colorado,  for 
altitude  in  August,  1917.  Reports  from  the  battle- 
field decided  the  board  to  build  12-cylinder  engines. 
Thereupon  standardized  parts  made  interchangeable 
for  all  types  of  Liberty  engines  were  detailed,  and 
orders  placed  with  the  various  firms  named  to  build 
the  same.  Production  was  started  on  a  large  scale. 

On  October  17  the  production  of  the  Liberty  motor 
started,  over  six  months  after  we  entered  the  war. 

The  delivery  of  the  first  Liberty  12  was  made  on 
Thanksgiving  Day,  1917. 

One  of  the  unrecorded  incidents  of  this  period  con- 
cerned the  "scrapping"  of  $400,000  worth  of  semi- 
finished parts  of  an  automotive  aircraft  engine,  which 
was  assumed  0.  K,  and  parts  had  been  ordered  for 
250  motors.  It  was  actually  in  production  at  the 
time  Hall  and  Vincent  were  ignoring  practically  all  its 
features  and  "laying  out"  the  designs  for  the  Liberty 
8  and  Liberty  12.  It  had  never  been  tested  in  a 
plane,  and  its  design  and  all  its  parts  were  rejected. 

Owing  to  the  slowness  of  production  due  to  the  new 


86  AIRCRAFT 

gigs,  dies,  tools,  etc.,  necessary  to  build  the  engines, 
much  criticism  was  directed  at  the  lack  of  shipments 
of  Liberty  engines  for  army  air  service  in  the  winter 
months  of  1917. 

Charged  with  the  necessity  of  protecting  the  Ameri- 
can army  transport,  the  Navy  Department  had  first 
call  on  all  air-service  equipment.  As  a  result  it  re- 
ceived the  first  Liberty  12's  turned  out.  These  were 
installed  in,  navy  aeroplanes,  where  they  did  good 
work. 

The  preliminary  Liberty  8  was  delivered  to  the 
Bureau  of  Standards,  Washington,  D.  C.,  July  3, 
1917,  by  the  group  of  industrial  concerns  named.  A 
54-hour  test  was  made  of  a  Liberty  12  on  August 
25  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards.  The  Liberty  12  was 
detailed  for  quantity  production,  and  the  actual  work 
was  begun,  and  the  work  done  by  these  companies  in 
producing  Liberty-engine  parts  is  above  praise.  It  was 
then  that  the  mighty  energies  of  their  splendid  organiza- 
tions demonstrated  the  ability  of  American  industrial 
life  to  fight  the  battle  behind  the  lines. 

WAR  DEPARTMENT  STATEMENT 

Departing  from  its  policy  of  secretiveness  concern- 
ing all  things  of  a  military  character,  the  United  States 
War  Department  on  May  15, 1918,  issued  an  authorized 
statement  dealing  with  the  technical  features  and  char- 
acteristics of  the  Liberty  12,  then  in  quantity  produc- 
tion. This  statement  was  published  in  the  Congres- 
sional Record  of  an  early  subsequent  date. 


THE    LIBERTY    MOTOR  87 

Secretary  of  War  Baker  in  his  report  published  else- 
where in  this  book  gives  the  following  account  of 
Liberty  motors  built: 

PRODUCTION  OF  SERVICE  ENGINES 

In  view  of  the  rapid  progress  in  military  aeronautics,  the 
necessity  for  the  development  of  a  high-powered  motor  adaptable 
to  American  methods  of  quantity  production  was  early  recog- 
nized. The  result  of  the  efforts  to  meet  this  need  was  the  Liberty 
motor — America's  chief  contribution  to  aviation,  and  one  of 
the  great  achievements  of  the  war.  After  this  motor  emerged 
from  the  experimental  stage,  production  increased  with  great 
rapidity,  the  October  output  reaching  4,200,  or  nearly  one-third 
of  the  total  production  up  to  the  signing  of  the  armistice.  The 
factories  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  this  motor,  and  their 
total  production  to  November  8,  are  listed  in  Table  21. 

TABLE  21. — PRODUCTION  OF  LIBERTY  MOTOR  TO  NOVEMBER  8,  1918, 
BY  FACTORIES: 

Packard  Motor  Car  Co 4,654 

Lincoln  Motor  Co 3,720 

Ford  Motor  Co 3,025 

General  Motors 1,554 

Nordyke  &  Marmon  Co 433 


Total 13,396 

Of  this  total,  9,834  were  high-compression,  or  army  type,  and 
3,572  low-compression,  or  navy  type,  the  latter  being  used  in 
seaplanes  and  large  night  bombers. 

In  addition  to  those  installed  in  planes,  about  3,500  Liberty 
engines  were  shipped  overseas,  to  be  used  as  spares  and  for 
delivery  to  the  Allies. 

Other  types  of  service  engines,  including  the  Hispano-Suiza 
300  horse-power,  the  Bugatti,  and  the  Liberty  8-cylinder,  were 
under  development  when  hostilities  ceased.  The  Hispano- 


88  AIRCRAFT 

Suiza  180  horse-power  had  already  reached  quantity  production. 
Nearly  500  engines  of  this  type  were  produced,  about  half  of 
which  were  shipped  to  France  and  England  for  use  in  foreign- 
built  pursuit  planes. 

Table  22  gives  a  resume*  of  the  production  of  service  engines 
by  quarterly  periods: 

TABLE  22. — PRODUCTION  OF  SERVICE  ENGINES  IN  1918: 

Jan.  1  to   Apr.  1  to   July  1  to  Oct.  1  to 

Name  of  engine                   Mar.  31     June  30     Sept.  30  Nov.  8  Total 

Liberty  12,  Army 122         1,493        4,116  4,093  9,824 

Liberty  12,  Navy 142           633        1,710  1,087  3,572 

Hispano-Suiza  180  h.p 185          284  469 

Later  the  Statistical  Department  of  the  War  Department 
issued  the  following.  The  number  of  planes  and  engines 
shipped  by  the  Bureau  of  Aircraft  Production  to  depots  and 
storehouses  from  the  date  of  the  armistice  to  February  14: 

Liberty  12  service  engines 4,806 

OX-5  elementary  training-engines 1,261 

Le  Rhone  advanced  training-engines 994 

De  Havilland-4  observation  planes 524 

Hispano  180  advanced  training-engines 343 

Hispano  150  advanced  training-engines 254 

JN6-H  advanced  training-planes 174 

JN4-D  elementary  training-planes 131 

The  Packard  Motor  Car  Company  made  the  final  deliveries 
of  Liberty  12  motors  during  the  week  ended  March  21,  1919. 
This  completes  all  contracts.  The  following  shows  the  number 
and  per  cent  produced  by  each  factory: 

Number  P.  C. 

Firm  produced  of  total 

Packard  Motor  Car  Co 6,500            32 

Lincoln  Motor  Co 6,500  .  32 

Ford  Motor  Co 3,950            19 

General  Motors  Co. 2,528            12 

Nordyke  &  Marmon  Co 1,000              5 


Total 20,478 


THE    LIBERTY    MOTOR  89 

THE  HispANO-SuizA 

It  is  evident  from  the  records  made  by  the  German 
Mercedes,  which  are  given  in  another  chapter,  that  it 
was  the  best  aviation  motor  in  existence  in  July,  1914. 
Naturally,  this  motor  had  considerable  influence  on 
the  aeronautical  engineers  of  the  Allies.  Mr.  Marc 
Birkright,  a  Swiss  engineer  to  the  Hispano-Suiza  Com- 
pany, automobile  builders  in  Barcelona,  Spain,  and 
Paris,  designed  the  aviation  motor  which  now  holds 
the  world's  record  for  altitude — 28,900  feet.  When  he 
designed  the  motor  he  had  in  mind  the  construction 
of  the  machine-tools  necessary  to  build  the  same. 

In  the  summer  of  1915  the  first  motor  of  150  horse- 
power was  delivered  to  France  after  a  test  of  15  con- 
secutive hours.  The  next  two  were  tested  for  50 
hours,  and  proved  satisfactory.  France  placed  a 
large  order,  and  the  Hispano-Suiza  factory  began 
production  at  the  end  of  1915.  Before  the  end  of  the 
war  three  Italian,  fourteen  French,  one  British,  one 
Japanese,  and  one  Spanish  factory,  besides  25,000  peo- 
ple in  America,  were  producing  Hispano-Suiza  engines. 

The  motor  had  great  success  in  the  single-seater 
fighters  flown  by  such  men  as  Captain  Georges  Guy- 
nemer,  Lieutenant  Fonck,  Nungesser,  and  dozens  of 
other  aces. 

With  the  exception  of  increasing  the  horse-power 
from  150  to  180,  200,  300,  very  few  changes  were  made 
in  this  motor  in  this  country. 

Four  hundred  and  fifty  engines  were  ordered  by  the 


90  AIRCRAFT 

French  Government  of  the  General  Aeronautic  Com- 
pany of  America  early  in  1916.  When  the  Wright- 
Martin  Aircraft  Company  was  formed  in  September  of 
that  year,  less  than  100  motors  had  been  delivered. 
At  the  end  of  July,  1917,  1,000  motors  were  on  their 
books. 

From  July,  1917,  the  American  factory  concentrated 
on  the  150  horse-power  engine.  The  Wright-Martin 
Company  had  to  build  its  own  plant  for  aluminum 
castings  for  the  engine.  In  November  of  that  year  the 
company  was  ordered  to  build  200  horse-power  engines, 
and  later  the  300  horse-power  was  ordered.  In  May, 
1918,  the  French  and  British  Governments  decided  to 
use  the  300  horse-power  motor  in  large  quantities,  and 
by  October  the  factories  of  the  company  in  New  Bruns- 
wick and  Long  Island  City  were  tooled  up  to  produce 
1,000  motors  a  month,  which  represented  a  $50,000,000 
order.  Early  in  the  spring  of  1918,  15  motors  a  day 
were  produced,  and  in  August  of  that  year  the  company 
was  committed  to  a  schedule  of  30  engines  a  day. 

THE  ROLLS-ROYCE  MOTOR 

"There  is  no  doubt,"  says  London  Motor,  "that  the 
conception  of  the  Rolls-Royce  aeronautic  engine  is 
extremely  good,  but  no  one  will  gainsay  the  fact  that 
the  care  exercised  in  manufacture  and  the  elaborate 
operations  through  which  the  various  parts  have  to 
pass  are  in  part  the  reason  for  its  success.  This  refine- 
ment necessitates  the  passing  of  certain  parts  through 
fifty  or  sixty  operations  that  might  be  easily  carried 


THE    LIBERTY    MOTOR  91 

out  in  a  comparatively  small  number  if  superfine  finish 
were  not  desired  or  required. 

"The  Rolls-Royce ' Eagle7  engine,  originally  designed 
as  a  200  horse-power  unit,  developed  255  horse-power 
on  the  first  brake  test.  Diligent  research  and  experi- 
ment were  pursued  with  extraordinary  results,  as  will 
be  seen  in  the  following  record  of  official  brake  tests, 
all  made  without  any  enlargement  of  the  dimensions 
or  radical  alteration  in  design.  A  12-cylinder  engine, 
4J^-inch  bore  by  G^-inch  stroke,  developed  in  March, 
1916,  266  horse-power  at  1,800  R.  P.  M.  By  July 
the  power  was  increased  to  284  horse-power;  nine 
months  from  this  date,  in  September,  1917,  it  had 
risen  to  350  horse-power,  and  in  February,  1918,  10 
more  horse-power  was  added,  making  the  total  360 
horse-power.  In  addition  to  the  'Eagle/  a  smaller 
engine  giving  105  horse-power  at  1,500  R.  P.  M.  was 
turned  out  under  the  name  of  the  'Hawk.' 

"The  'Eagle'  engine  was  used  in  the  large  Handley 
Page  machine,  and  in  the  successful  long-distance 
bombing  raids  into  Germany.  In  1916  another  en- 
gine for  fighting  planes  was  added  to  the  list,  under  the 
name  of  'Falcon/  and  was  almost  exclusively  used  in 
the  Bristol  fighting  plane.  The  increase  in  the  power 
developed  by  the  'Falcon'  engine,  which  has  a  4-inch 
bore,  was  as  follows:  April,  1916,  206  horse-power  at 
1,800  R.  P.  M.;  July,  1918,  285  horse-power  at  2,000 
R.  P.  M. 

"From  the  stamping-plant  through  the  machine, 
gear-cutting,  and  grinding  shops  and  welding  depart- 


92  AIRCRAFT 

ment,  the  care  with  which  each  engine  is  turned  out  is 
apparent.  Take  apart  a  cylinder  which  has  a  stamped 
sheet-metal  water-jacket  welded  externally,  and  the 
original  billet  is  found  out  of  which  the  cylinder  was 
made,  but  reduced  almost  by  half  when  it  is  ready  to 
receive  the  valve  cages,  and  during  the  process  of  re- 
moval of  the  metal  and  forming  into  proper  shape  the 
piece  is  subjected  to  several  heat  treatments  so  as  to 
bring  the  metal  to  that  stage  of  perfection  needed  for 
the  work  it  has  to  perform.  The  elbow  cages  that  are 
fitted  to  the  cylinders  might  be  cast  and  cored,  but  the 
valve  cage  is  an  actual  solid  stamping,  and  the  right- 
angle  bend  through  the  elbow  has  to  be  bored  out  by 
special  machines. 

"One  point  illustrates  the  care  in  the  choice  of 
metal  and  the  multifarious  operations  through  which 
each  part  has  to  pass.  A  crank-shaft  stamping  with 
extension  piece  on  the  rear  and  about  one  foot  long  is 
cut  off,  and  test  pieces  of  this  metal,  properly  num- 
bered with  each  crank-shaft,  are  passed  through  the 
same  treatment  as  the  crank-shaft  itself,  and  then  sub- 
jected to  minute  examination  by  highly  skilled  en- 
gineers. The  actual  manufacturing  side  of  the  work 
would  naturally  be  very  similar  to  the  manufacture 
of  a  car  engine,  but  one  obtains  a  better  perspective 
of  what  an  engine  is  subjected  to  by  passing  from  the 
erecting  and  manufacturing  shops  to  the  engine-test- 
ing shop,  where  the  ear-splitting  reports  from  the  open 
exhausts  of  a  number  of  engines  being  tested  at  the 
same  time  are  heard.  Here  one  sees  how  dissimilar 


THE    LIBERTY    MOTOR  93 

the  aviation  engine  is  from  the  car  engine.  It  is 
almost  impossible,  without  having  actually  witnessed 
it,  to  picture  to  oneself  a  12-cylinder  engine  running 
at  2,200  R.  P.  M.  against  a  brake  test.  As  the  ex- 
haust ports  are  on  either  side  of  the  engine,  the  cylin- 
ders being  placed  in  the  form  of  a  V,  it  is  possible,  by 
passing  on  either  side,  to  look  into  the  combustion- 
chamber  and  see  the  valves  rising  and  the  spit  of  the 
exhaust,  and,  what  is  almost  incredible,  that  the  ex- 
haust valves  are  actually  red-hot  and  run  in  this  con- 
dition for  hours.  Little  wonder  is  it  that  the  valves 
have  to  be  made  of  superfine  material  and  of  particular 
form. 

"The  variation  in  the  color  of  the  flame  of  the  ex- 
haust, due  to  strong  and  weak  mixtures,  makes  it 
quite  possible  to  test  the  good  running  of  an  engine 
by  the  color  of  its  exhaust.  The  strength  of  the  mix- 
ture has  necessarily  to  be  altered  according  to  atmos- 
pheric conditions  and  the  altitude  to  which  the  pilot 
desires  to  climb. 

"No  doubt  airplane-engine  practice  of  the  last  four 
years  and  the  advance  that  it  has  made  will  be  reflected 
in  a  very  marked  degree  in  the  automobile,  not  neces- 
sarily by  fitting  large  airplane  engines  in  cars,  but  by 
applying  to  car  practice  the  knowledge  that  has  been 
gained  in  manufacture. 

"The  Rolls-Royce  works  had  in  1907  an  area  of  5,312 
square  yards,  and  during  the  war  this  was  increased 
to  67,935  square  yards.  At  the  present  time  the  pay- 
roll is  somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  8,650." 


CHAPTER  VIII 

GROWTH  OF  AIRCRAFT  MANUFACTURING  IN 
UNITED  STATES 

THE  1912  EXPOSITION — THE  FIRST  PAN-AMERICAN  EX- 
POSITION— THE  MANUFACTURERS  AIRCRAFT  EXPOSI- 
TION— DESCRIPTIONS  OF  EXHIBITORS — GROWTH  OF 
AIRCRAFT  FACTORIES — NAVAL  AIRCRAFT  FACTORY 

As  soon  as  the  Wright  brothers  demonstrated  the 
feasibility  of  aerial  flight  in  1908  a  great  many  com- 
panies were  organized  to  manufacture  heavier-than- 
air  machines.  Naturally,  most  of  the  designers  and 
builders  were  young  men  who  learned  to  fly,  as 
there  was  no  science  of  aircraft  construction  taught  in 
the  universities  or  colleges  in  the  pioneer  days.  At 
first  little  capital  was  obtained,  and  as  the  use  of  the 
aeroplane  was  confined  to  sporting  purposes,  the  de- 
mands for  the  same  were  small.  Nevertheless,  by 
May,  1912,  the  manufacturing  of  aircraft  had  devel- 
oped to  such  an  extent  that  a  show  was  held  at  the 
Grand  Central  Palace,  New  York,  from  May  9  to 
18.  The  exposition  was  held  under  the  auspices  of 
the  International  Exposition  Company.  Nine  mono- 
planes and  twelve  biplanes  and  one  quadriplane  were 
exhibited. 

The  Wright  brothers  exhibited  a  two-seater  biplane. 
It  differed  little  from  the  regular  headless  models,  the 

94 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    95 

only  change  being  the  two  long,  narrow,  vertical  planes 
in  front  and  a  larger  vertical  rudder  in  the  rear  and 
wing-warping.  The  gasoline-tank  is  placed  behind  the 
passenger-seat,  while  the  radiator  was  put  in  the  rear 
of  the  engine.  On  the  Wright  stand  was  also  to  be  seen 
for  the  first  time  one  of  their  new  6-cylinder  6  horse- 
power aeroplane  motors,  as  well  as  a  new  three-step 
hydroplane,  designed  expressly  for  use  on  their  ma- 
chines. 

CURTISS 

\ 

The  Curtiss  Aeroplane  Company  showed  three  of 
their  latest  biplanes  and  two  motors. 

The  centre  of  attraction  of  the  Curtiss  exhibit  was 
the  new  small-spread  headless  machine.  This  machine 
had  a  spread  of  only  21  feet  3  inches,  and  a  chord  of 
4J^  feet,  and  an  over-all  length  of  32  feet.  It  was 
equipped  with  a  75  horse-power  8-cylinder  V  water- 
cooled  Curtiss  motor.  A  Curtiss  hydroaeroplane  was 
also  shown. 

In  addition  to  the  hydro  and  racer  the  Curtiss  Com- 
pany showed  a  two-passenger  military-type  machine, 
fitted  with  a  shift  control. 

BURGESS 

The  Burgess  Company  showed  three  biplanes,  one  a 
large  two-seater  military  tractor,  a  regular  Burgess- 
Wright  hydroaeroplane,  and  ;the  "Flying  Fish,"  the 
original  Burgess. 

The  military  type  was  a  large  tractor  biplane  having 


96  AIRCRAFT 

the  engine  and  propeller  mounted  in  front  of  the 
fuselage.  The  seats  for  the  aviator  and  passenger 
were  arranged  tandem  fashion  behind  the  gasoline- 
tanks  and  immediately  between  the  two  planes.  Near 
the  rear  of  the  fuselage  was  attached  a  stationary  hori- 
zontal stabilizing  tail,  while  at  the  extreme  rear  was 
the  horizontal  rudder. 

The  power-plant  consisted  of  an  8-cylinder  V  air- 
cooled  70  horse-power  Renault  motor,  which  drove 
through  under  gearing  a  large  Chauviere  tractor  pro- 
peller. 

In  addition  the  machine  was  equipped  with  a  very 
complete  wireless  set  for  receiving  and  sending  mes- 
sages, the  current  being  generated  by  a  small  dynamo, 
which  was  placed  underneath  the  fuselage  and  was 
driven  by  the  engine. 

The  Burgess-Wright  shown  was  of  the  regular  two- 
passenger  type,  capable  of  being  started  from  the  seat, 
and  fitted  with  a  6-cylinder  50  horse-power  silenced 
Kirkham  motor  in  place  of  the  usual  35  horse-power 
Wright. 

SCHILL 

Paul  Schill,  of  the  Max  Ams  Company,  exhibited  a 
large  Farman-type  hydroaeroplane,  equipped  with  a 
100  horse-power  8-cylinder  Max  Ams  motor,  which 
could  be  cranked  from  the  seat.  This  biplane  had  a 
covered-in  cabin  with  seats  for  three  persons.  The 
hydroplanes  were  fitted  to  the  regular  skid  struts  and 
were  of  the  single-step  type. 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    97 

COFFYN 

Frank  T.  Coffyn  exhibited  a  hydroaeroplane.  This 
machine  was  the  regular  standard  Wright  pattern, 
but  fitted  with  Coffyn's  own  hydroplanes.  Coffyn  was 
the  first  man  to  successfully  fit  double  hydroplanes  to 
an  aeroplane. 

Another  improvement  made  by  Coffyn  was  the 
fitting  of  a  starting-crank  to  permit  starting  the  motor 
from  the  front  without  having  to  turn  the  propellers. 

CHRISTMAS 

The  Christmas  Aeroplane  Company  showed  a  bi- 
plane. The  wings  of  this  biplane  were  set  at  a  double 
dihedral  angle,  with  an  opening  about  two  feet  wide 
in  the  centre  of  the  top  plane,  to  take  up  the  blast  of 
air  made  by  the  propeller.  The  edges  of  the  wings 
were  flexible  like  a  bird's.  The  controlling-gear  con- 
sisted of  a  semicircular  wheel,  which  by  rotating 
worked  the  ailerons,  while  a  twisting  movement  of 
the  whole  on  its  axis  turned  the  vertical  rudder,  and 
a  fore-and-aft  movement,  operated  by  warping,  the 
large  horizontal  rudder  in  the  rear.  The  motor  used 
was  a  7-cylinder  50  horse-power  Gyro. 

GRESSIER 

The  Gressier  Aviation  Company  exhibited  a  "Ca- 
nard" type  machine  which  was  fitted  with  a  50  horse- 
power Gnome.  This  machine  has  an  elevator  in  front 
of  the  fuselage,  while  the  main  planes  and  motor  were 


98  AIRCRAFT 

in  the  rear.    The  seats  for  pilot  and  passenger  were 
situated  just  in  front  of  the  main  biplane  cellule. 

The  biplane  shown  was  fitted  with  three  skids  and 
six  Farman-type  shock-absorbing  wheels. 

REX 

The  Rex  Monoplane  Company  exhibited  an  ail- 
American  monoplane.  This  machine  had  a  long, 
graceful  fuselage,  which  carried  at  its  front  end  the 
motor  and  gasoline-tank,  the  wings  and  the  pilot's  seat, 
and  at  its  rear  the  flat,  non-lifting  tail  plane  and  ele- 
vator flaps  with  the  vertical  rudder  immediately  be- 
hind them.  The  landing-gear  was  quite  novel,  and 
consisted  of  a  single  skid  and  two  shock-absorbing 
wheels.  These  wheels  were  attached  to  the  fuselage 
through  telescopic  tubes  having  springs  inside  them 
to  absorb  shocks.  The  axle  also  strapped  to  the 
landing-skid  by  rubber  bands,  the  whole  forming  the 
first  flexible  and  efficient  shock-absorbing  landing- 
gear. 

The  main  planes  had  a  peculiar  reverse  curve  in 
them,  and  were  pivoted  to  a  centre  upright  in  the 
fuselage,  thus  permitting  of  warping  the  whole  wing 
instead  of  only  the  tips. 

ANTOINETTE 

Harry  S.  Harkness  exhibited  the  Antoinette  mono- 
plane with  which  he  carried  the  first  war-despatch 
in  the  United  States,  on  February  7,  1911.  This 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    99 

machine  was  fitted  with  an  8-cylinder  50  horse-power 
Antoinette  motor  and  Normale  propeller. 

BALDWIN 

Captain  Thomas  S.  Baldwin  showed  the  biplane 
with  which  he  has  toured  in  many  parts  of  the  globe. 
This  machine  was  a  cross  between  an  early  Farman 
and  a  Curtiss.  The  power-plant  consisted  of  a  60 
horse-power  8-cylinder  Hall-Scott  motor. 

MULTIPLANE  LTD. 

The  Multiplane  Limited,  of  Atchison,  Kan.,  showed 
a  large  quadruplane  built  under  the  patents  of 
H.  W.  Jacobs  and  R.  Emerson.  The  machine  was  of 
the  headless  type,  having  four  main  planes  in  front, 
with  four  lifting  tail  planes  in  the  rear,  and  an  ele- 
vator immediately  behind  the  two.  The  propellers 
were  mounted  on  the  same  axis  and  placed  midway 
behind  the  main  planes,  and  were  driven  by  leather- 
covered  flat  steel  belts  from  two  8-cylinder  80  horse- 
power staggered  V-type  air-cooled  motors.  The 
machine  was  designed  for  weight-carrying,  and  was 
fitted  with  a  large  cabin  having  a  double  row  of  seats, 
capable  of  holding  five  people  comfortably.  The 
landing-chassis  consisted  of  one  long  centre  skid,  having 
two  large  48-inch  wheels  in  front,  and  a  single  swivel- 
ling wheel  in  the  rear.  These  wheels  were  not  fitted 
with  pneumatic  tires,  but  instead  had  a  broad,  flat, 
strip  steel  rim.  The  wing  spread  was  37  feet;  length, 
29  feet  8  inches;  height,  17  feet. 


100  AIRCRAFT 

GALLAUDET 

The  Gallaudet  Engineering  Company  exhibited  a 
speed  monoplane  named  the  "Bullet." 

The  fuselage  was  torpedo-shaped,  having  a  section 
four  feet  square  at  the  point  where  the  aviator  sat, 
and  tapering  sharply  to  a  point  in  the  front,  and  more 
gradually  toward  the  rear.  The  nose  of  the  machine 
was  made  up  of  sheet  aluminum,  having  a  series  of 
holes  stamped  in  it  to  permit  of  efficient  cooling  of  the 
14-cylinder  Gnome.  The  main  planes  were  attached 
to  the  centre  of  the  fuselage  in  a  position  just  behind 
the  engine,  while  at  the  rear  of  the  fuselage  were  the 
small  triangular-shaped  elevator  and  the  vertical 
rudder.  A  three-bladed  propeller  was  used.  The 
dimensions  were:  length  over  all,  20  feet  6  inches; 
spread,  32  feet;  width  of  wings,  8  feet  wide  at  the  body, 
tapering  slightly  toward  the  tips. 

TWOMBLY 

Mr.  Irving  W.  Twombly  exhibited  a  Bleriot-type 
monoplane  which  was  fitted  with  one  of  his  45  horse- 
power 7-cylinder  air-cooled  revolving  motors.  The 
planes  were  covered  with  transparent  celluloid  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  body  for  the  purpose  of  affording  the 
pilot  a  good  view  of  the  ground  immediately  below 
and  in  front  of  him. 

Another  exhibit  of  Mr.  Twombly's  was  a  shock- 
absorbing  safety  harness  of  his  own  invention  for 
strapping  aviators  in  their  machines.  This  harness 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFAe¥u#ifr6 

was  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  the  aviator  from  being 
lurched  out  of  his  seat,  and  yet  at  the  same  time  per- 
mitting him  to  quickly  detach  himself  from  the  harness 
in  case  of  emergency. 

NIEUPORT 

The  Aero  Club  of  America  exhibited  a  50  horse- 
power Gnome  Nieuport  aeroplane. 

QUEEN 

The  Queen  Aeroplane  Company  exhibited  two  ma- 
chines, one  an  aero-boat  designed  by  Grover  C.  Loening, 
and  the  other  a  Bleriot-type  monoplane  equipped  with 
a  30  horse-power  Anzani  motor. 

The  aero -boat  consisted  of  an  aluminum -covered 
boat,  to  which  were  attached  in  front  on  an  upright 
structure  the  main  wings,  with  the  motor  and  pro- 
peller just  behind  them.  The  power-plant  consisted 
of  a  50  horse-power  Gnome,  which  was  placed  in  the 
boat  proper,  and  drove  through  a  chain  the  propeller, 
which  was  just  behind  and  a  little  above  the  main 
planes.  The  controlling  arrangement  was  quite  novel, 
and  consisted  of  two  horizontal  levers  resembling  the 
tillers  of  a  boat,  which  the  operator  grasped  one  in 
each  hand. 

NATIONAL 

The  National  Aero  Company  exhibited  a  Bleriot- 
type  monoplane  which  was  equipped  with  a  4-cylinder 
40  horse-power  Rubel  "Gray  Eagle"  motor  and  Rubel 


192 


^  CRAFT 


propeller.    The  motor  was  fitted  with  an  acetylene 
self-starter,  which  was  controlled  from  the  seat. 

AMERICAN 

The  American  Aeroplane  Company  exhibited  a  large 
monoplane  with  a  very  low  centre  of  gravity.  It  was 
fitted  with  two  50  horse-power  2-cycle  air-cooled  re- 
volving motors  and  self-starters,  and  was  designed  to 
fly  with  either  motor,  and  to  carry  six  to  ten  persons. 

THE  FIRST  PAN-AMERICAN  AERO  SHOW 

It  is  notable  that  no  engine  exhibited  at  this  exposi- 
tion had  more  than  80  horse-power,  whereas  the 
Liberty  motor  of  1917  developed  450  horse-power  and 
the  Fiat  700  horse-power. 

The  first  Pan-American  aero  exhibit  was  held  at 
the  Grand  Central  Palace,  February  8  to  15,  1917. 
By  that  time  the  war  had  demonstrated  the  value  of 
aircraft  for  scouting,  bombing,  reconnaissance,  and 
contract  patrol,  and  because  of  the  exploits  performed 
by  famous  aces,  had  attracted  the  attention  of  huge 
numbers  of  people. 

During  the  five  years  that  had  elapsed  from  the  time 
of  the  former  exhibit  the  construction  of  aircraft  had 
advanced  fully  a  decade,  due  to  the  intensive  acro- 
batics aircraft  had  to  be  put  through  in  aerial  fighting. 
America  was,  of  course,  far  from  the  seat  of  the  war, 
but  owing  to  the  orders  placed  with  the  Curtiss  Aero- 
plane and  Motor  Company  and  other  companies  by 
the  British  and  other  governments,  constructors  were 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    103 

kept  more  or  less  in  touch  with  developments  in  Europe. 
It  is  true  that  owing  to  the  rapid  changes  in  designs 
of  motors  and  aeroplanes,  due  to  the  competition  be- 
tween the  Central  Powers  and  the  Allies  for  control 
of  the  air,  the  speedier  planes  like  the  scouts  and  battle- 
planes were  built  in  England,  France,  and  Italy,  while 
the  United  States  manufacturers  produced  seaplanes 
for  hunting  submarines,  and  training-machines,  of 
which  there  was  a  tremendous  demand. 

The  Curtiss  Company  immediately  turned  their 
energies  to  building  J.  N.  4  training-machines,  and 
large  seaplanes,  like  the  "America,"  which  Captain 
Porte  was  to  attempt  to  fly  across  the  Atlantic  with 
for  the  British  Government. 

A  large  number  of  accessories  were  also  exhibited. 
President  Wilson  opened  the  convention  by  wireless, 
and  Governor  Whitman  delivered  an  address. 

The  next  aero  show  was  held  by  the  Manufacturers 
Aircraft  Association  at  Madison  Square  Garden, 
March  1-15,  1919.  This  organization  had  been 
effected  on  February  15,  1917.  The  following  were 
the  incorporators  of  the  association:  The  Aeromarine 
Plane  and  Motor  Company,  John  D.  Cooper  Aeroplane 
Company,  L.  W.  F.  Engineering  Company,  S.  S.  Pierce 
Aero  Corporation,  Standard  Aero  Corporation,  Sturte- 
vant  Aeroplane  Company,  Thomas-Morse  Aircraft  Cor- 
poration, Witteman-Lewis  Aircraft  Company,  Wright- 
Martin  Aircraft  Corporation. 

In  the  meantime  the  United  States  had  entered  the 
war.  At  the  beginning  a  great  many  newspaper  editors 


104  AIRCRAFT 

who  did  not  know  the  difficulties  of  constructing  air- 
craft in  quantity,  and  imagining  that  they  could  be 
produced  as  easily  as  automobiles,  wrote  glowing  edi- 
torials demanding  the  immediate  construction  of  100,- 
000  aeroplanes  to  invade  Germany  in  the  air  and  de- 
stroy her  manufacturing  industries,  as  well  as  terrorize 
the  people  into  surrender.  The  Aircraft  Production 
Board,  however,  realizing  in  a  measure  the  difficulty 
of  constructing  aeroplanes  in  quantity,  especially  as 
there  were  very  few  aircraft  factories  in  the  country 
at  that  time  which  could  deliver  quantity  production, 
planned  to  build  only  one-fourth  that  number.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  Curtiss  Aeroplane  and  Motor 
Company  was  the  only  organization  that  was  construct- 
ing aircraft  on  a  large  scale  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  and  the 
Curtiss  plant  in  Toronto,  Canada.  Nevertheless,  the 
Aircraft  Production  Board  laid  down  plans  for  the  pro- 
duction of  22,500  planes.  Even  this  was  too  optimisti- 
cal an  estimate,  although  the  Aircraft  Production 
Board  did  not  at  that  time  realize  it.  This,  however, 
has  been  explained  in  the  official  reports  of  the  Aircraft 
Production  Board  by  General  Kenly,  Howard  E.  Cof- 
fin, and  John  D.  Ryan. 

To  get  into  production  the  Aircraft  Production  Board 
had  the  government  take  over  a  number  of  plants  on 
a  cost  plus  10  per  cent  basis,  and  those  companies 
immediately  began  to  expand  their  manufacturing  ca- 
pacity to  make  the  new  orders  the  government  was 
placing  with  them.  The  Curtiss  Aeroplane  and  Motor 
Company,  Dayton- Wright,  Standard  Aircraft,  Rubay 
Company,  Springfield  Aircraft  Corporation,  Aero- 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    105 

marine  Plane  and  Motor  Company,  the  Fowler  Air- 
craft Company,  and  a  number  of  others  received  large 
orders  from  the  government.  Unfortunately,  the  Air- 
craft Production  Board  did  not  see  fit  to  give  orders 
to  the  smaller  manufacturers  in  proportion  to  the 
size  and  capacity  of  their  plants.  Many  of  these 
smaller  manufacturers  could  have  produced  a  few 
machines  for  the  government,  and  this  would  have 
tended  to  swell  the  whole  to  a  greater  figure.  The 
inability  of  some  of  the  manufacturers  to  increase 
their  plants  in  proportion  to  the  orders,  naturally  de- 
layed the  manufacture  of  aircraft. 

In  the  matter  of  the  Liberty  motor  the  same 
mistake  was  made.  Instead  of  taking  patterns  and 
blue-prints  of  a  good  foreign  motor,  like  the  Hispano- 
Suiza,  which  was  already  being  built  in  this  country, 
and  producing  them  in  quantity,  the  government 
stopped  to  design  a  new  motor — the  Liberty  motor 
— which  the  Aircraft  Production  Board  evidently 
thought  could  be  built  in  a  day.  This  was  not  done 
— as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  took  almost  six  months  to 
complete  the  first  production  motor — whereas  a  good 
foreign  motor  could  have  been  put  in  quantity  pro- 
duction almost  immediately,  and  with  the  failure  of 
manufacturers  of  aircraft  to  turn  out  the  desired 
number  of  planes,  this  caused  a  tremendous  outcry 
from  the  disappointed  American  public,  who  thought 
100,000  aeroplanes  could  be  built  as  easily  as  100,000 
automobiles.  This  led  to  an  aircraft  investigation. 
Judge  Hughes  was  appointed  by  President  Wilson  to 
conduct  the  investigation.  The  report  failed  to  find 


106  AIRCRAFT 

any  one  libel  to  prosecution.  Indeed,  most  of  the 
errors  were  those  of  judgment  or  lack  of  ability. 
Later  President  Wilson  pardoned  those  who  might 
have  been  prosecuted. 

Another  error  was  caused  by  the  delay  in  determin- 
ing on  the  type  of  aeroplane  which  should  be  built  in 
quantity  in  this  country.  Several  types  were  adopted 
and  then  cancelled.  Finally,  however,  the  Curtiss 
J.  N.  4's  were  adopted  as  the  standard  training-machine 
and  the  standard  J.  was  discarded.  The  D.  H.  4's 
were  turned  out  in  large  quantities  by  the  Dayton- 
Wright;  Curtiss  produced  some  Bristol  machines  in 
addition  to  their  training-machine  and  seaplanes.  The 
Standard  Aircraft  Corporation  built  a  few  Capronis 
and  Handley  Pages,  Curtiss-H-boats.  Owing  to  a 
failure  to  adapt  the  Liberty  engine  to  the  Bristol 
fighter  after  three  pilots  lost  their  lives,  the  machine  was 
abandoned.  If  the  war  had  lasted  another  year  these 
companies  would  have  been  in  quantity  production, 
and  undoubtedly  America  would  have  delivered  a  por- 
tion of  the  thousands  of  machines  which  were  promised 
on  the  West  Front. 

As  nearly  every  company  which  had  built  for  the 
army  or  the  navy  was  represented  at  the  March,  1919, 
aero  show,  a  description  of  the  exhibits  will  give  the 
best  idea  of  the  types  of  machines  produced: 

AEROMARINE  PLANE  AND  MOTOR  COMPANY 

Model  50  flying-boat,  similar  to  the  Model  40  except 
that  in  the  latter  machine  the  cabin  is  closed  in  by  a 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    107 

transparent  hood,  and  it  is  driven  by  an  Aeromarine 
130  horse-power  type-L  engine.  The  Model  50  is  a 
sport  machine  designed  for  pleasure  flying. 

The  upper  plane  has  a  span  of  48  feet  4  inches,  lower 
plane  37  feet  4  inches.  Fully  loaded  the  machine 
weighs  about  2,500  pounds.  Unloaded  the  weight  is 
about  2,000  pounds. 

BOEING  AEROPLANE  COMPANY 

The  Type  C-l  F.  Navy  Training  Hydroaeroplane 
was  flown  from  Hampton  Roads,  Va.,  to  Rockaway, 
N.  Y.,  for  exhibition  at  the  aero  show.  This  machine 
is  equipped  with  a  Curtiss  OXX-5  100  horse-power 
motor.  It  is  an  experimental  type  built  for  the  navy, 
and  has  single  float  instead  of  the  double  floats  usually 
employed  on  Boeing  seaplanes. 

Span,  both  planes 43'  0" 

Over-all  length 24'  0" 

Speed  range 36-65  M.  P.  H. 

BURGESS  COMPANY 

The  Burgess  Company  exhibited  a  car  designed  for 
one  of  the  "C"  class  twin-motored  navy  dirigibles. 
The  car  is  of  stremline  form,  40  feet  long,  5  feet  in 
maximum  diameter,  with  steel  tube  outriggers  carry- 
ing an  engine  at  either  side.  Over-all  width  of  out- 
riggers, 15  feet.  Complete  weight  of  car,  4,000  pounds. 

Seven  passengers  may  be  carried,  but  the  usual 
crew  consists  of  four. 

The  engines  are  made  by  the  Union  Gas  Engine 


108  AIRCRAFT 

Company,  and  are  150  horse-power  each.  Fuel  ca- 
pacity, 240  gallons;  oil,  16  gallons.  Four  bombs, 
totalling  1,080  pounds,  are  carried  at  the  side. 

The  dirigible  for  which  the  car  was  designed  is  192 
feet  long,  43  feet  wide,  and  46  feet  high;  it  has  a  ca- 
pacity of  180,000  cubic  feet.  Its  high  speed  is  59 
miles  per  hour,  at  which  speed  it  has  an  endurance  of 
10  hours.  Cruising  speed,  42  miles  per  hour;  cruising 
radius,  12 J^  hours.  Climb,  1,000  feet  per  minute. 

THE  CANTILEVER  AERO  COMPANY 
The  Christmas  Bullet  has  caused  a  great  deal  of 
comment  in  aeronautical  circles  because  of  its  freedom 
from  struts  and  wires.  It  is  the  first  heavier-than-air 
machine  built  on  the  Cantilever  truss  principle,  and  is 
the  result  of  years  of  painstaking  investigations  and 
experiments  made  by  the  inventor,  Doctor  William 
Whitney  Christmas. 

The  wings  of  the  Christmas  Bullet  are  flexible  and 
resemble  true  bird  form.  Because  of  this  yielding 
principle  the  machine  is  absolutely  immune  from  all 
strain  and  resistance,  as  are  "stiff-wing,"  parallel-strut 
machines. 

The  Christmas  Bullet  has  a  horse-power  of  185. 

Span 28' 0" 

Length  over  all 21'  0" 

Weight,  machine  empty 1,820  Ibs. 

Weight,  fully  loaded 2,100  Ibs. 

A  Liberty  "6"  is  used,  giving  185  horse-power  at 
1,400  R.  P.  M. 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    109 

CAPRONI  COMPANY 

The  Caproni  Company  exhibited  a  giant  triplane 
which  has  been  famous  since  1915,  when  it  made  its 
first  appearance.  This  triplane  has  a  spread  of  130 
feet.  It  is  equipped  with  three  400  horse-power  en- 
gines, two  of  them  in  tractor  position  at  the  nose  of 
the  fuselage,  and  one  a  pusher  at  the  rear  of  the  central 
nacelle.  This  machine  has  climbed  to  an  altitude  of 
14,000  feet  with  a  ton  of  useful  load,  and  with  only 
two  of  the  engines  running.  The  triplane  was  used 
as  a  bomber,  and  carries  a  bomb  compartment  below 
the  lower  plane. 

CURTISS  AEROPLANE  AND  MOTOR  COMPANY 
Curtiss  J  N  4  D 

The  J  N  4  D  Tractor  shown  by  the  Curtiss  Company. 
General  specifications  are  as  follows: 

Span,  upper  plane 43'  7" 

Length  over  all 27'  4" 

Net  weight,  empty 1,430  Ibs. 

Gross  weight,  machine  loaded 1,920  Ibs. 

Useful  load 430  Ibs. 

The  motor  is  Model  OX  5,  90  horse-power.  Speed 
range  of  75-45  miles  per  hour.  Climb  in  10  minutes, 
2,000  feet. 

The  Curtiss  M  F  Flying-Boat 

The  Curtiss  M  F  Flying-Boat,  a  sportsman's  model, 
is  the  smallest  of  the  Curtiss  boats,  a  development  of 


110  AIRCRAFT 

the  popular  "F"  boat,  carrying  two  persons  side  by 
side. 

Span,  upper  plane 49'  9" 

Over-all  length 28'  10" 

Weight,  empty 1,796  Ibs. 

Useful  load 636  Ibs. 

Maximum  speed 69  M.  P.  H. 

Minimum  speed 45  M.  P.  H. 

Maximum  range 325  miles 

Engine,  Curtiss  OXX 100  H.  P. 

The  Curtiss  H-A  Hydro 

The  Curtiss  H-A  Hydro,  a  two-place  single-float 
seaplane.  The  upper  wing  has  a  dihedral  of  3  degrees 
and  the  lower  plane  a  dihedral  of  1  degree.  Both 
planes  have  an  incidence  of  2  degrees  and  a  sweep- 
back  of  4J^  degrees.  In  official  tests  by  the  Navy 
Department  this  machine  has  made  a  speed  of  131.9 
miles  per  hour  with  a  full  load.  Its  climbing  speed  is 
8,500  feet  in  10  minutes. 

The  float  is  20  feet  long,  3  feet  6  inches  wide,  and 
2  feet  6  inches  deep.  It  has  three  planing  steps. 

The  engine  is  a  Liberty  12,  giving  330  horse-power. 
It  is  directly  connected  to  a  two-bladed  propeller  9 
feet  2  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  7  foot  7  inches  pitch, 
or  a  three-bladed  propeller  8  feet  6  inches  in  diameter 
and  7  feet  6  inches  in  pitch,  depending  upon  whether 
speed  or  quick  climb  is  required. 

Upper  plane,  span 30'  0" 

Over-all  length 30'  9" 

Net  weight,  machine  empty 1,012  Ibs. 

Weight,  full  load 2,638  Ibs. 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    111 

DAYTON-WRIGHT  AEROPLANE  COMPANY 
De  Havilland  4 

The  De  Havilland  4  Aeroplane,  exhibited  by  the 
Dayton- Wright  Aeroplane  Company,  was  the  first  De 
Havilland  4  battle-plane  to  be  built  in  America,  having 
been  completed  October  29,  1917,  at  Dayton,  Ohio. 
This  machine  has  been  in  continuous  service  since  that 
time,  and  has  been  used  in  2,500  flying  tests  of  various 
kinds. 

With  this  machine  a  distance  of  about  111,000  miles 
has  been  covered  in  a  time  of  about  1,078  hours. 
Twenty-eight  cross-country  trips  have  been  made  in 
it,  including  Dayton  to  Washington,  Dayton  to  New 
York,  Dayton  to  Chicago,  Dayton  to  Cleveland,  etc. 

The  battle-plane  is  exhibited  with  all  its  military 
equipment,  including  two  Marlin  machine-guns  fixed 
on  the  front  cowling  and  fired  through  the  propeller 
at  a  rate  of  750  rounds  at  1,650  R.  P.  M.  of  the  engine, 
and  two  movable  Lewis  machine-guns  at  the  rear 
cockpit  which  fire  650  rounds  per  minute.  The  wire- 
less carried  has  a  range  of  eleven  miles  to  another  aero- 
plane and  a  receiving  radius  of  forty-seven  miles  by 
a  ground-station.  A  camera  located  to  the  rear  of 
the  observer  is  worked  by  means  of  wind-vane.  Pho- 
tographs are  taken  at  the  rate  of  twenty-four  per 
minute,  and  magazine  carries  six  dozen  plates. 

A  full  complement  of  twelve  bombs  are  carried  un- 
der the  lower  wings,  and  flare-lights  for  night-landing 
are  suspended  from  the  wing-tips.  Red  and  green 


112  AIRCRAFT 

guide-lights  are  carried  on  the  lower  plane,  and  a  white 
light  is  located  on  the  fuselage  deck  aft  of  the  gunner. 
The  engine  is  one  of  the  first  Libertys  to  be  built. 

The  TA  Messenger 

The  "Messenger"  was  designed  as  a  war-machine, 
but  after  being  modified  in  small  details  it  makes  an 
ideal  machine  for  commercial  and  sporting  purposes. 
As  a  war-machine  its  use  was  to  have  been  in  carrying 
messages  from  the  front  lines  to  headquarters  and  in 
general  liaison  work. 

The  machine  is  exceptionally  light  and  easy  to  fly, 
making  it  possible  to  make  landings  in  places  that  have 
been  heretofore  inaccessible. 

The  fuselage  has  absolutely  no  metal  fittings  nor 
tie-rods  of  any  sort,  strips  of  veneer  being  used  ex- 
clusively for  the  bracing. 

The  machine  comes  within  the  means  of  the  average 
sportsman,  for  its  cost  is  said  to  be  not  much  over 
$2,000. 

Span,  upper  plane 19'  3" 

Length 17'  6" 

Weight,  unloaded 476  Ibs. 

Weight,  loaded 636  Ibs. 

Engine,  air-cooled  De  Palma 37  H.  P. 

The  engine  is  a  4-cylinder  air-cooled  V  type,  manu- 
factured by  the  De  Palma  Engine  Company  of  Detroit. 
Its  weight  is  3.7  pounds  per  horse-power.  The  engine 
consumes  4  gallons  of  gasoline  per  hour,  and  tank  has  a 
capacity  of  12  gallons.  Oil  is  carried  in  the  crank-case. 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    113 

GALLAUDET  AIRCRAFT  CORPORATION 

Gallaudet  E-L  2  Monoplane 

Striking  originality  in  design  was  shown  in  the 
twin-pusher  monoplane  exhibition  by  the  Gallaudet 
Aircraft  Corporation.  Mr.  Gallaudet's  1919  Sport 
Model  has  a  high  factor  of  safety  and  is  easily  main- 
tained. 

Two  stock  "Indian"  motorcycle  engines  are  located 
in  the  nose  of  the  fuselage,  connected  to  a  common 
transverse  shaft,  and  resting  on  the  top  of  the  plane, 
and  driving  twin-pusher  propellers  on  longitudinal 
shafts  driven  by  bevel-gears. 

Engines  are  "oversize"  models,  giving  20  horse- 
power each  at  2,400  R.  P.  M.  Weight,  89  pounds 
each.  Propellers  are  3-bladed,  4  feet  8  inches  in  diam- 
eter, and  7  feet  in  pitch.  Propellers  run  at  one-half 
engine  speed,  1,200  R.  P.  M. 

The  plane  has  a  span  of  33  feet. 

The  body  is  of  monocoque  construction,  3-ply 
spruce  being  used.  Two  seats  are  provided,  side  by 
side,  with  single  stick  control. 

Over-all  length  of  machine,  18  feet  7  inches. 

Eight  gallons  of  fuel  are  carried,  sufficient  for  two 
hours. 

Gallaudet  D-4  Bomber 

The  machine  is  powered  with  a  Liberty  motor,  driv- 
ing a  pusher  propeller  attached  to  a  ring  surrounding 
the  fuselage. 


114  AIRCRAFT 

THE  L.  W.  F.  COMPANY 

The  L.  W.  F.  Model  V  Tractor  was  equipped  with 
125  horse-power  Thomas  engine,  is  convertible  from 
a  land  machine  to  a  hydro.  The  machine  exhibited 
at  the  show  had  twin  floats. 

The  L.  W.  F.  Company  also  exhibited  one  of  the 
H  S  1  L  Coast  Patrol  Flying-Boats,  with  a  350  horse- 
power Liberty  engine.  The  machine  has  a  span  of 
62  feet.  Over-all  length  is  38  feet  6  inches,  and  over- 
all height  is  14  feet  7  inches.  The  hull  weighs  1,265 
pounds.  Gross  weight,  5,900  pounds,  and  weight, 
empty,  4,810  pounds.  Fuel  and  oil,  750  pounds,  and 
crew,  360  pounds. 

The  L.  W.  F.  Model  G-2  Fighter 

Model  G-2  is  a  two-place  armored  fighter,  carrying 
seven  machine-guns  and  four  bombs.  Guns  are  ar- 
ranged to  be  fired  downward  through  an  opening  in 
the  bottom  of  the  fuselage. 

Span  over  all 41'  7^" 

Length  over  all 29'  Ifc" 

Total,  full  load  (fighter) 4,023  Ibs. 

Weight,  light  (bomber) 2,675.5  Ibs. 

Total,  full  load  (bomber) 4,879.5  Ibs. 

THE  GLENN  L.  MARTIN  COMPANY 

The  Martin  Bomber 

The  Martin  Twin-Engine  Bomber  has  a  speed  of 
118.5  M.  P.  H.,  made  on  the  first  trial  with  full  bomb- 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    115 

ing  load.  The  climbing  time  with  full  bombing  load 
was  10,000  feet  in  15  minutes,  and  a  service  ceiling  of 
16,500  feet  was  attained.  As  a  militaiy  machine  the 
Martin  Twin  is  built  to  fill  requirements  of  a  night- 
bomber,  day-bomber,  long-distance  photographer,  or 
a  gun-machine.  As  a  night-bomber  it  is  equipped 
with  3  Lewis  guns,  1,500  pounds  of  bombs,  and  1,000 
rounds  of  ammunition.  A  radiotelephone  set  is  car- 
ried on  all  four  types.  Fuel  capacity  sufficient  for 
six  hours.  Full  power  at  1,500  feet. 

As  a  day-bomber  two  additional  guns  are  carried, 
and  the  bomb  capacity  cut  to  1,000  pounds.  The 
Martin  Twin  is  easily  adaptable  to  commercial  uses 
which  are  now  practical:  they  are  mail  and  express 
carrying,  transportation  of  passengers,  and  aerial  map 
and  survey  work.  As  an  example  of  its  capacity, 
twelve  passengers  or  a  load  of  merchandise  weighing 
a  ton  may  be  carried. 

General  dimensions  are  as  follows: 

Span,  both  planes 71'  5" 

Over-all  length 46'  0" 

With  a  ton  of  useful  load,  speed  of  100  to  150  M. 
P.  H.  is  made.  Two  400  horse-power  Liberty  engines 
are  used. 

PACKARD  MOTOR  CAR  COMPANY 

The  Packard  two-place  tractor  was  designed  around, 
and  made  a  complete  unit  with,  the  Model  l-A-744 
Packard  Aviation  Engine.  This  machine  will  make 


116  AIRCRAFT 

about  100  M.  P.  H.  with  full  load,  on  account  of  its 
light  weight  and  clean-cut  design,  and  yet  its  landing 
speed  is  as  low  as  the  average  training  aeroplane. 

Packard  8-cylinder  160  horse-power  at  1,525  R.  P.  M. 
Weight,  complete  with  hub  starter,  battery,  and  en- 
gine water,  585  pounds. 

STANDARD  AERO  CORPORATION 
Handley  Page  Bomber 

The  American-built  Handley  Page  shown  at  the 
Garden  was  similar  to  the  British,  except  that  Liberty 
"12"  400  horse-power  engines  are  employed  in  the 
former,  and  the  Rolls-Royce,  or  Sunbeam,  in  the  latter. 
Accommodations  are  made  for  one  pilot  and  two  or 
three  gunners,  and  an  observer,  who  operates  the 
bomb-dropping  device.  Two  guns  are  located  at  the 
top  of  the  fuselage,  and  a  third  is  arranged  to  fire 
through  an  opening  in  the  under  side  of  the  fuselage, 
and  a  pair  of  flexible  Lewis  machine-guns  is  operated 
at  the  forward  end  of  the  fuselage.  One  gunner  may 
have  charge  of  all  rear  guns,  although  usually  two 
gunners  man  them. 

Span,  upper  plane 100'    0" 

Length  over  all 62'  10" 

Height  over  all  at  overhang  cabane 22'    0" 

Height  over  all  at  centre  panel 17'    6" 

Width,  wings  folded 31'    0" 

Machine,  empty 1,566  Ibs. 

Machine,  loaded 14,300  Ibs. 

Each  of  the  two  engines  gives  400  horse-power  at 
1,625  R.  P.  M. 
Speed  at  ground,  92  M.  P.  H. 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    117 


The  "5-4"  Mail  Aeroplane 

The  "E-4"  MaH  Plane,  built  by  the  Standard  Aero 
Corporation,  is  particularly  adaptable  to  the  work  of 
carrying  mail  because  of  the  special  features  of  its 
design.  The  machine  exhibited  has  seen  considerable 
service,  having  been  brought  directly  to  the  show  after 
completing  one  of  its  regular  mail-carrying  trips. 

The  engine  is  a  Wright-Martin  Model  L  Hispano- 
Suiza,  giving  150  horse-power  at  1,500  R.  P.  M.  and 
170  horse-power  at  1,700  R.  P.  M.  The  Model  1  is 
an  8-cylinder  V  type,  with  a  bore  of  120  mm.  (4.724 
inches)  and  a  stroke  of  130  mm.  (5.118  inches). 


Span,  upper  plane  ......................  31' 

Length  over  all  ........................  26'    2" 

Height  over  all  ........................  10'  1Q&" 

Machine,  empty  .......................  1,566  Ibs. 

Machine,  loaded  .......................  2,400  Ibs. 

Machine,  loaded  with  overhang  ..........  2,450  Ibs. 


THE  THOMAS-MORSE  AIRCRAFT  CORPORATION 

Four  aeroplanes  shown  by  the  Thomas-Morse  Com- 
pany: the  Type  S-6,  S-7,  S4-C  Scout,  and  the  M-B-3 
I  Fighter. 

The  M-B-3  Fighter  is  equipped  with  a  300  horse- 
power Hispano-Suiza  engine.  It  is  a  single-seater,  and 
is  said  to  be  the  fastest  climbing  aeroplane  in  the  world. 

The  S4-C  is  an  80  horse-power  Le  Rhone  Scout, 
used  for  advanced  training.  It  has  been  used  at  most 
of  the  army  training-schools  throughout  the  United 
States. 


118  AIRCRAFT 

The  S-6  is  a  Tandem  two-seater,  very  similar  to  the 
S4-C  in  general  appearance.  With  an  80  horse-power 
Le  Rhone,  this  .machine  has  a  speed  range  of  33-105 
M.  P.  H.  In  ten  minutes  its  climb  is  7,800  feet. 

The  S-7  is  a  side-by-side  Tractor,  with  an  80  horse- 
power Le  Rhone  engine.  The  side -by -side  seating 
makes  it  especially  desirable  for  pleasure  flying.  The 
cockpit  contains  numerous  comforts  and  conveniences. 

The  principal  dimensions  and  specifications  of  the 
S-7  are: 

Span,  both  planes 32'  0" 

Over-all  length 21'  6" 

THE  UNITED  AIRCRAFT  ENGINEERING  CORPORATION 

This  company  is  showing  a  Canadian-Curtiss  train- 
ing-plane, such  as  used  by  the  Royal  Flying  Corps  for 
instruction  in  Canada  and  England. 

A  number  of  Curtiss  OX-5  100  horse-power  engines 
are  also  on  display,  together  with  other  equipment, 
which  the  company  has  purchased  from  the  Imperial 
Munitions  Board  of  Canada. 

UNITED  STATES  ARMY 

Langley  Experimental  Flying-Machine 

The  model  of  the  Langley  aeroplane  is  a  copy  of  the 
original  Langley  Flying-Machine  which  is  now  in  the 
United  States  National  Museum  at  Washington,  D.  C. 
This  machine  made  the  first  successful  flight  by  heavier- 
than-air  machine  driven  by  its  own  power.  The  ma- 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    119 

chine  was  launched  May  6,  1896,  at  Quantico,  Va. 
It  rose  to  a  height  of  70  to  100  feet,  and  travelled  half 
a  mile  at  20  to  25  M.  P.  H.,  with  propellers  revolving 
at  1,500  R.  P.  M. 

The  total  weight  of  the  machine  is  26  pounds.  It 
is  driven  by  a  single-cylinder  engine,  using  gasoline  as, 
fuel. 

Foreign  Aeroplanes 

Among  the  foreign  aeroplanes  sent  to  the  aero  show 
by  the  War  Department  are  the  French  Spad,  French 
Nieuport,  British  SEV,  and  a  German  Albatross  Dll. 

The  Spad  is  a  single-seater  scout,  with  a  Hispano- 
Suiza  engine. 

The  Nieuport  Single-Seater  is  equipped  with  a  ro- 
tary Gnome  engine. 

The  SEV,  which  was  put  into  limited  production 
in  the  United  States,  has  a  Hispano-Suiza  engine. 

The  Albatross  Scout  was  one  of  Germany's  best 
fighters.  It  has  a  Mercedes  engine. 

UNITED  STATES  NAVY  DEPAKTMENT 

The  F-5-L  constructed  by  the  Naval  Aircraft  Fac- 
tory at  Philadelphia  has  a  span  of  107  feet  wing,  chord 
of  8  feet,  and  an  over-all  length  of  50  feet. 

Two  400  horse-power  Liberty  engines  are  used,  con- 
nected to  tractor  propellers  10  feet  6  inches  in  diameter. 
Five  hundred  gallons  of  gasoline  are  carried,  sufficient 
for  a  duration  of  10  hours  at  full  speed,  near  sea-level, 
and  a  speed  of  102  M.  P.  H.  is  maintained. 


120  AIRCRAFT 

Fully  loaded  the  machine  weighs  14,000  pounds. 
This  weight  included  a  crew  of  5  men,  1  Davis  and  4 
Lewis  machine-guns,  4,230  pounds  bombs,  radio  ap- 
paratus, telephone  system  with  6  stations,  carrier- 
pigeons,  and  500  gallons  of  gasoline. 

The  machine  is  exhibited  with  one  half  covered  and 
the  other  half  exposed  to  show  the  interior  construc- 
tion. 

In  the  making  of  this  machine  there  are  6,000  dis- 
tinct pieces  of  wood,  50,000  wood  screws,  46,000  nails, 
braces,  and  tacks,  and  4,500  square  feet  of  cotton  fabric. 
The  hull  requires  600  square  feet  of  veneer.  The  250 
pieces  of  steel  tubing  total  1,000  feet  in  length;  5,000 
feet  of  wire  and  cable,  500  turnbuckles,  1,500  each  of 
bolts,  nuts,  and  washers,  and  1,000  metal  fittings  are 
necessary  in  the  construction  of  this  flying-boat. 

Navy  M-2  Baby  Seaplane 

The  M-2  Seaplane  designed  by  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment, and  built  by  Grover  Cleveland  Loening,  was  to 
have  been  used  for  submarine-patrol  work.  It  is 
easily  set  up,  and  occupying  so  little  space,  can  be 
stored  aboard  a  submarine. 

The  machine  is  a  tractor  monoplane  with  twin 
floats.  The  plane  has  a  span  of  19  feet  and  a  total 
wing  area  of  only  72  square  feet.  The  wing  section  is 
a  modified  R.  A.  F.  15.  Over-all  length  of  machine, 
13  feet. 

The  floats  are  10  feet  long  and  weigh  16  pounds  each. 
They  are  constructed  of  sheet  aluminum  with  welded 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    121 

seams.    The  interior  of  the  floats  is  coated  with  glue, 
and  outside  is  not  painted  but  coated  with  oil. 

The  engine  is  a  3-cylinder  Lawrence  60  horse-power 
air-cooled  engine,  driving  a  6-foot  6-inch  propeller  with 
a  5-foot  pitch.  Twelve  gallons  of  gasoline  and  1  gal- 
lon of  oil  are  carried,  sufficient  for  two  hours'  flight. 
Fully  loaded  with  pilot  and  fuel,  the  complete  ma- 
chine weighs  but  500  pounds.  The  maximum  speed  is 
about  100  M.  P.  H.,  and  the  low  speed  is  50  M.  P.  H. 

Helium-Filled  Model  Airship 

The  model  dirigible  exhibited  by  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment is  inflated  with  helium.  Another  item  that  is  of 
interest  is  the  fact  that  this  model  dirigible,  32  feet 
long  and  7  feet  in  diameter,  contains  more  helium  than 
has  ever  been  placed  in  an  envelope  of  any  kind. 

Astra-Torres  Dirigible 

The  dirigible  car  shown  by  the  Navy  Department 
is  from  a  ship  of  the  "Astra-Torres"  type.  The  air- 
ship was  built  by  the  French  in  1916,  and  turned  over 
to  the  Americans  in  March,  1918,  at  Paimboeuf,  France, 
the  American  naval  station  commanded  by  Com- 
mander L.  H.  Marfield,  U.  S.  N.  It  was  used  until 
November,  1918,  for  coast  patrol  on  the  west  coast  of 
France. 

The  car  is  45  feet  long,  6  feet  wide,  and  7  feet  high. 
The  envelope  (which  is  not  exhibited)  is  221  feet  long 
and  47  feet  in  diameter,  having  a  capacity  of  252,000 
cubic  feet.  Speed,  45.5  miles  per  hour.  With  a  crew 


122  AIRCRAFT 

of  Americans,  this  ship  has  stayed  aloft  for  25  hours, 
40  minutes.  At  its  cruising  speed  of  45.5  miles  the 
endurance  is  10  hours. 

The  car  accommodates  a  crew  of  12.  Two  150  horse- 
power Renault  engines  with  two-bladed  tractor  pro- 
pellers are  used.  They  are  placed  on  outriggers. 
Two  Lewis  machine-guns  are  carried. 

The  ship  is  one  of  several  large  dirigibles  purchased 
by  the  United  States  navy  and  brought  to  this  coun- 
try for  the  purpose  of  development. 

B.  F.  GOODRICH  COMPANY 

The  principal  exhibit  by  the  Goodrich  Company 
consisted  of  one  of  the  first  dirigibles  put  into  the 
United  States  Naval  Service.  This  is  a  "Blimp "  that 
was  completed  in  August,  1917,  and  used  for  seventeen 
months  in  coast-patrol  work  in  the  vicinity  of  New 
York  City.  The  dirigible  is  167  feet  long,  33  feet  in 
maximum  diameter,  and  contains  80,000  cubic  feet  of 
gas.  This  dirigible  held  the  record  for  continuous 
flight. 

A  Curtiss  OX  motor  is  used.  The  car  is  arranged 
to  carry  a  crew  of  three  men.  In  cruising  a  speed  of 
from  40  to  50  M.  P.  H.  is  maintained. 

Other  exhibits  by  the  Goodrich  Company  are  a 
model  spherical  balloon,  relief  throttle-valves  perfected 
by  the  Goodrich  Company,  and  principally  the  Gram- 
meter  valve,  shock-absorber  cords,  special  parachute 
attachments,  fabrics  and  cloths  for  aeronautical  use, 
etc.  Another  feature  of  the  exhibit  will  be  a  short 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    123 

motion-picture,  showing  how  the  balloons  are  manu- 
factured. 

THE  GOODYEAR  TIRE  AND  RUBBER  COMPANY 

The  Goodyear  Tire  and  Rubber  Company  of  Akron, 
Ohio,  was  the  most  extensive  aerostatic  exhibit  of  the 
show.  The  outstanding  feature  of  the  booth  was  the 
dirigible  pusher-car,  completely  equipped,  of  a  type 
which  has  many  sisters  in  service.  A  35,000-cubic-foot 
type  "R"  military  kite-balloon  is  suspended  and 
equipped  complete.  Attractive  models  of  the  twin- 
engine  navy  dirigible  and  a  transcontinental  pas- 
senger dirigible  car  are  on  display.  These  models  are 
complete  in  every  detail,  including  full  set  of  instru- 
ments and  controls,  lockers,  and  upholstery. 

A  full-sized  dirigible  car  equipped  with  dual  control, 
indicating  devices,  including  manometers,  tachometers, 
air-speed  indicators,  incidence  and  bank  indicator, 
clock,  driven  by  an  8-cylinder  OX-2  Curtiss  motor,  of 
the  type  used  on  the  FC  training  dirigible,  having  a 
cubic  capacity  of  85,000  feet,  form  an  interesting  part 
of  the  Goodyear  exhibit.  Models  of  "R"  type  kite- 
balloon,  military  free  balloons,  and  of  the  U  dirigible 
are  also  on  display. 

GROWTH  OF  AEROPLANE  PLANTS 

The  growth  of  the  aeroplane  factories  during  the 
war  was  enormous.  The  Aeromarine  Plane  and  Motor 
Corporation,  which  was  located  in  a  small  plant  at 
Nutley,  N.  J.,  moved  to  Keyport,  N.  J.,  and  on  a 


124  AIRCRAFT 

property  of  66  acres  erected  sixteen  fireproof  buildings, 
with  a  total  space  of  125,000  feet.  Most  of  the  work 
of  this  plant  was  done  for  the  navy.  Three  types  of 
training-machines  were  produced,  39-A  type,  a  turn- 
float  hydroplane,  39-B,  a  single-float  machine,  and 
Model  40,  a  flying-boat. 

The  Dayton-Wright  Aeroplane  plant  was  incor- 
porated on  April  9,  1912,  to  build  aircraft  for  war 
purposes.  In  August,  1917,  a  contract  for  400  train- 
ing-planes was  awarded  to  the  company,  and  later  an 
order  for  5,000  De  Havilland  4  battle-planes  was  re- 
ceived from  the  government. 

By  November  11,  1918,  the  400  training-machines 
were  delivered  and  2,700  D.  H.  4's,  and  the  5,000 
order  was  cut  to  3,100,  which  were  to  be  completed. 
One  thousand  eight  hundred  D.  H.  S-4's  were  shipped 
to  France.  The  three  plants  were  located  near  Day- 
ton, Ohio.  Mr.  Orville  Wright  was  the  consulting  en- 
gineer of  the  company.  In  addition  to  the  three  large 
plants  which  the  company  operated  at  the  South 
Field  Experimental  Station,  which  had  a  total  of 
65,000  square  feet,  8,000  people  were  employed  by 
the  company. 

The  Curtiss  Aeroplane  Company  were  making  land- 
machines,  seaplanes,  and  engines  for  the  British  Gov- 
ernment when  the  United  States  entered  the  str  ggle. 
Mr.  Curtiss,  the  inventor  of  the  flying-boat,  and  the 
winner  of  many  aeronautical  prizes  and  trophies,  was 
the  chairman  of  the  board  of  directors  and  Mr.  John 
North  Willys  president. 

In  January,  1916,  the  company  was  incorporated, 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    125 

and  in  February  of  the  same  year  the  stock  of  the 
Burgess  Company  of  Marblehead,  Mass.,  was  ac- 
quired by  the  Curtiss  Company.  It  also  controlled 
the  Curtiss  Aeroplane  Motors,  Ltd.,  of  Canada  and 
the  flying-fields  at  Miami,  San  Diego,  Hammondsport, 
Newport  News,  and  the  Atlantic  Coast  Aeronautical 
Station.  The  company  had  nine  plants  and  four  flying- 
fields  in  1918.  The  main  plant  was  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
The  chief  plant  is  now  at  Garden  City,  Long  Island. 
The  plants  consisted  of  2,000,000  square  feet,  and  em- 
ployed 18,000  persons. 

The  company  reached  a  quantity  production  of 
112  complete  machines  a  week,  and  50  a  day  was  to 
be  expected  had  not  the  armistice  been  signed  on 
November  11,  1918.  Before  and  during  the  war  the 
Curtiss  plants  manufactured  10,000  aeroplanes  and 
flying-boats  and  15,000  motors.  The  Curtiss  plants 
produced  a  great  variety  of  machines,  including  Spads, 
Bristols,  and  Nieuports.  The  famous  NC- 1-2-3-4, 
which  participated  in  the  transatlantic  flight,  were  con- 
structed for  the  navy  by  Curtiss  Company  at  Garden 
City,  Long  Island. 

The  Burgess  Company  was  also  doing  business  when 
the  war  broke  out.  The  firm  was  organized  in  1909. 
The  company  supplied  machines  to  the  United  States 
Government  for  work  on  the  Mexican  border  in  1914, 
and  many  types  of  seaplanes  were  also  constructed. 
In  1913  the  company  secured  the  rights  to  manufac- 
ture under  the  Dunne  patents,  covering  inherent 
stability. 

The  Burgess  plant  at  Marblehead,  Mass.,  was  one 


126  AIRCRAFT 

chosen  by  the  navy  to  build  training-seaplanes  produc- 
ing N-9  and  N-9-H  seaplanes.  The  company  started 
producing  one  plane  a  day,  but  finally  got  up  to  four 
a  day,  and  employed  1,100  men  and  women.  The 
company  also  built  turn-engine  dirigible  cars  for  the 
navy. 

The  Glenn  L.  Martin  Company  of  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
was  organized  in  the  fall  of  1917  with  the  idea  of  build- 
ing a  gigantic  American  bomber  for  work  with  the 
Allies  in  Europe.  The  first  machine  was  flown  in 
August,  1918.  Mr.  Martin  had  been  the  organizer  of 
the  Glenn  L.  Martin  Company  of  Los  Angeles  in  1910, 
and  had  also  been  interested  in  the  Wright-Martin  Air- 
craft Corporation  of  New  York  and  New  Brunswick, 
N.J. 

The  Martin  bomber  constructed  by  this  company 
had  a  wing  spread  of  71  feet  and  length  of  45  feet.  It 
carried  11  passengers  and  pilot,  and  made  several 
records. 

The  factory  consisted  of  a  single  structure  of  300  by 
200  feet.  The  war  ended  before  the  company  got  into 
quantity  production  of  the  huge  bomber. 

The  L-W-F  Engineering  Company,  Inc.,  was  or- 
ganized in  December,  1915,  and  the  plant  was  located 
at  College  Point,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.  The  factory  has 
a  floor  space  of  250,000  square  feet.  The  company 
built  training-machines  and  flying-boats  for  the  gov- 
ernment. The  L-W-F  fuselage  is  of  the  monocoque 
type,  which  means  "one  shell"  as  regards  the  body. 
It  is  of  streamline  laminated  wood. 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    127 

The  Standard  Aero  Corporation  began  life  in  May, 
1912.  Later  it  occupied  several  buildings  at  Plain- 
field,  N.  J.  The  company  was  reorganized  under  the 
name  of  the  Standard  Aircraft  Corporation  in  1917, 
and  acquired  the  thirty-four  buildings  of  a  manufac- 
turing company  in  Elizabeth,  N.  J.  The  total  floor 
space  was  614,190  square  feet.  The  company  built 
several  thousand  Standard  J  training-machines,  which 
were  bought  by  the  government,  but  later  discarded. 
The  company  also  constructed  the  first  Handley  Page 
machines  in  this  country,  and  also  the  first  American 
constructed  Caproni  triplanes.  Mr.  Harry  B.  Mingle 
was  the  president  and  Mr.  Charles  H.  Day  the  en- 
gineer. 

The  Standard  model  J.  H.  was  a  hydroaeroplane, 
and  a  number  of  H.  S.-l-l  and  H.  S.-2-1,  and  D.  H.  4's. 
Flying-boats  were  made  by  this  company.  Model 
J.  R.-l-B.  was  used  by  the  Post-Office  Department 
for  aero  mail  service  between  New  York-Phila- 
delphia-Washington, making  a  most  excellent  record. 

The  St.  Louis  Aircraft  Corporation  was  organized  in 
the  fall  of  1917.  The  Huttig  Sash  and  Door  Company 
of  St.  Louis  and  the  St.  Louis  Car  Company  facilities 
were  used  for  making  J.  N.  4-D  training-planes,  which 
were  being  turned  out  in  quantity  in  May,  1918. 
Nine  hundred  people  were  employed,  and  machines 
at  the  rate  of  30  per  week  were  being  produced. 

The  Springfield  Aircraft  Corporation  came  into 
being  on  September  27,  1917,  and  began  to  manufac- 
ture J.  N.  4-D  and  VE-7  type  machines.  The  com- 


128  AIRCRAFT 

pany  leased  the  Mason  Company's  plants,  with  200,000 
square  feet  capacity,  at  Springfield,  Mass. 

The  plant  reached  a  capacity  of  from  5  to  8  machines 
per  day  when  the  war  ended.  Over  1,000  were  em- 
ployed. 

The  Wright-Martin  Aircraft  Corporation  was  or- 
ganized in  September,  1916,  to  take  over  the  General 
Aeronautic  Company  of  America,  the  Simples  Auto- 
mobile Company,  and  the  Wright  Company.  The 
General  Aeronautic  Company  had  received  an  order 
for  450  Hispano-Suiza  engines  in  1916,  but  less  than 
100  motors  had  been  delivered  by  July,  1917.  In 
May,  1918,  the  General  Vehicle  Company's  plant  at 
Long  Island  City  was  bought  by  the  United  States 
Government  and  given  over  to  the  use  of  the  Wright- 
Martin  Aircraft  Corporation.  Fifteen  thousand  men 
were  employed  by  the  company,  and  the  first  produc- 
tion engine  was  tested  in  November,  1918.  The 
company  also  set  up  a  gauge  plant  at  Newark,  N.  J. 
The  company  had  orders  for  delivery  of  2,000  motors 
a  month  in  1919,  totalling  $50,000,000.  The  company 
reached  a  production  of  30  engines  a  day  in  October, 
1918.  This  engine  holds  the  altitude  record  of  29,500 
feet,  made  by  Captain  Schroeder  in  December,  1918. 
The  company  produced  no  aeroplanes  during  the  United 
States'  participation  in  the  war. 

In  1915  the  Sturtevant  Aeroplane  Company  was  or- 
ganized by  Mr.  Noble  Foss  and  Mr.  Benjamin  Foss. 
The  original  plant  at  Jamaica,  Mass.,  had  24,000  square 
feet.  The  company  built  25  machines  before  the 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    129 

United  States  entered  the  war.  Experiments  were 
made  with  an  all-steel  fuselage.  The  B.  F.  Sturtevant 
Company  had  built  many  aeroplane  engines,  and  it 
had  been  organized  by  the  same  two  brothers.  At  the 
end  of  the  war  the  company  had  erected  a  new  three- 
story  building  of  35,000  square  feet.  They  had  over 
1,000  employees  at  the  two  plants.  The  Aeroplane 
Company  was  engaged  primarily  in  manufacturing 
spare  parts  for  the  J.  N.  4-D  and  D.  H.  4,  etc. 

The  Thomas  Brothers  Aeroplane  Company  was  or- 
ganized in  1912  at  Bath,  N.  Y.,  and  built  many 
types  of  machines,  both  seaplanes  and  land-machines, 
before  the  war.  The  Thomas  Aeromotor  firm  came  to 
life  in  August,  1915.  In  January,  1917,  the  two  com- 
panies were  combined  into  the  Thomas-Morse  Aircraft 
Corporation  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  and  a  factory  of  three 
large  buildings  was  constructed.  The  plant  has  a 
floor  space  of  190,000  square  feet.  The  S-4-E,  the 
S-5  scouts,  the  M-B-1  and  the  M-B-2  fighters,  B-3 
flying-boat,  and  D-2  hydro  are  well  known  as  the 
Thomas-Morse  machines. 

OTHER  MACHINES  MADE 

A  number  of  other  manufacturers  were  given  orders 
to  construct  aircraft.  The  Packard  Motor  Company 
established  a  department  and  Captain  Le  Pere,  the 
French  military  aircraft  engineer,  designed  a  number 
of  machines  which  were  built  for  the  government. 
Among  them  was  the  G.  H.-ll,  an  armored  plane,  the 
U.  S.  Le  Pere  Triplane,  and  the  Le  Pere  combat  ma- 


130  AIRCRAFT 

chine,  which  flew  from  Detroit  to  New  York  to  attend 
the  aero  show  at  Madison  Square  Garden,  March  1, 
1919.  None  of  these  machines  were  put  into  quantity 
production. 

The  Fowler  Aircraft  Factory  at  San  Francisco  had 
fifteen  planes  in  construction  when  their  plant  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  May,  1918,  with  a  loss  of  a  million 
dollars. 

Other  factories  which  were  building  aircraft  to  sub- 
mit to  the  government  were  the  Lawson  Aircraft  Fac- 
tory at  Green  Bay,  Wis.,  The  Whitteman-Lewis  Com- 
pany at  Newark,  N.  J.,  The  Alexandria  Company  at 
Alexandria,  Va.,  to  mention  only  a  few. 

The  S.  S.  Pierce  Company  at  Southampton,  Long 
Island,  had  an  order  for  300  "penguins,"  as  the  train- 
ing-machines were  called,  but  they  were  not  delivered. 

The  Goodyear  and  Goodrich  Tire  and  Rubber  Com- 
panies built  a  great  many  kite,  observation,  and  propa- 
ganda balloons  for  the  army,  and  blimps  for  the  navy. 
Their  exhibit  at  the  Manufacturers  Aircraft  Show,  de- 
scribed elsewhere,  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  their 
product. 

THE  NAVAL  AIKCKAFT  FACTORY 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment gave  little  support  to  the  aircraft  industry,  despite 
the  fact  that  we  had  been  on  the  verge  of  war  with 
Mexico,  and  that  the  Great  War  was  on  in  Europe, 
when  the  United  States  was  finally  forced  into  the 
struggle  the  aircraft  manufacturers  were  not  tooled 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    131 

up  to  manufacture  seaplanes  and  flying-boats  in  quan- 
tity, so  the  navy  immediately  made  plants  to  estab- 
lish a  naval  aircraft  factory  at  Philadelphia. 

When  war  was  declared  on  April  6,  1917,  only  93 
heavier-than-air  seaplanes  had  previously  been  de- 
livered to  the  navy,  and  135  were  on  order.  Of  the 
number  that  had  previously  been  delivered,  only  21 
were  in  use,  the  remainder  having  been  worn  out  or 
lost.  The  seaplanes  were  of  the  N-9  and  R-6  types, 
which  are  now  considered  as  training-seaplanes. 

After  eliminating  types  which  had  been  tried  and 
found  unsuitable,  the  Navy  Department  fixed  upon 
two  sizes  for  war  purposes,  which  had  been  perfected 
in  the  United  States  in  anticipation  of  the  develop- 
ment of  a  high-powered  engine.  The  engine  developed 
was  the  Liberty.  The  flying-boat  is  an  American 
conception,  and  it  has  not  been  found  necessary  to 
copy  foreign  patterns  to  insure  our  flyers  being  sup- 
plied with  the  best. 

With  the  development  of  suitable  planes  and  en- 
gines the  navy  was  able  to  select  the  type  of  aircraft 
which  was  best  suited  for  its  service,  and  to  frame  a 
large  and  complete  building  programme.  As  a  result 
over  500  seaplanes  were  put  in  use  at  naval  air-stations 
in  the  United  States,  and  up  to  December,  1918,  over 
400  seaplanes  had  been  sent  abroad.  Other  aircraft 
at  stations,  both  in  this  country  and  abroad,  included 
airships  and  kite-balloons. 

The  demand  for  aircraft  necessitated  an  enormous 
increase  of  production  facilities,  and,  as  a  part  of  this 


132  AIRCRAFT 

extension,  the  Navy  Department  undertook  to  build 
and  equip  a  naval  aircraft  factory  at  the  Philadelphia 
Navy-Yard.  Within  90  days  from  the  date  the  land 
had  been  assigned  the  factory  was  erected  and  the 
keel  of  the  first  flying-boat  was  laid  down.  In  August, 
1918,  the  factory  was  producing  50  per  cent  more  sea- 
planes than  it  had  been  two  months  previous.  In 
addition,  at  least  five  plants  were  devoted  to  navy 
work,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  output  of  several 
other  factories  had  been  assigned  to  the  navy. 

The  delivery  of  seaplanes  for  training  purposes  has 
been  sufficient  to  more  than  meet  the  requirements. 
The  training  of  personnel  and  providing  of  stations 
and  equipment  to  carry  out  this  training  had  ex- 
panded sufficiently  so  that  the  output  of  pilots,  ob- 
servers, mechanicians,  and  men  trained  in  special 
branches  was  keeping  abreast  or  ahead  of  requirements. 

The  navy  aircraft  factory  produced  aircraft  valued 
at  $5,435,000  up  to  the  time  the  armistice  was  signed. 
It  had  completed,  ready  for  shipment,  183  twin-engine 
flying-boats,  at  an  average  cost  of  $25,000.  It  had 
also  produced  4  experimental  Liberty-engine  seaplanes, 
carrying  the  Davis  non-recoil  gun,  at  a  cost  of  $40,000 
each,  and  50  sets  of  twin-engine  flying-boats'  spare 
parts  worth  $10,000  per  set.  In  addition  considerable 
minor  experimental  work  and  overhauling  of  machines 
from  other  stations  was  done. 

The  main  factory  at  Philadelphia  had  a  capacity  of 
50  boats,  and  could  turn  out  an  average  of  5  machines 
a  day  when  the  armistice  was  signed. 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURING    133 

On  October  1,  1917,  the  first  mechanic  was  hired  at 
the  navy  aircraft  factory.  On  November  1,  1918, 
there  were  3,642  men  and  women  employed  in  building 
flying-boats  for  the  navy. 

About  1,500  Liberty  engines  were  delivered  to  the 
navy  and  assigned  to  naval  air-stations  in  this  country 
and  abroad.  Since  the  number  of  Liberty  engines 
produced  were  too  small  for  the  needs  of  the  army 
alone,  it  had  been  necessaiy  for  the  navy  to  purchase 
others,  to  the  number  of  about  700,  which  were  utilized 
while  awaiting  a  full  supply  of  Liberty  engines. 

In  addition  to  these  a  large  number  of  engines  of 
less  power  were  bought  for  use  in  training-planes,  all 
of  which  were  distributed  to  the  flying-schools. 

One  of  the  very  important  duties  devolving  on  the 
Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering  was  the  equipment  and 
maintenance  of  stations  for  the  generation  of  hydrogen 
for  use  in  airships.  A  number  of  stations  were  estab- 
lished, and  a  full  equipment  of  hydrogen  cylinders  pro- 
vided, so  that  any  calls  might  be  promptly  met. 


CHAPTER   IX 
THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  AERO  MAIL 

FIRST  MAIL  CARRIED  BY  AIRCRAFT — NEW  YORK-PHILA- 
DELPHIA-WASHINGTON SERVICE — NEW  YORK-CLEVE- 
LAND-CHICAGO SERVICE — FOREIGN  AERO  MAIL 
ROUTES 

As  soon  as  the  aeroplane  demonstrated  that  it  could 
travel  at  least  twice  as  fast  as  the  fastest  express-train, 
even  when  going  in  the  same  direction,  and  that  in 
addition  it  could  traverse  mountains,  rivers,  forests, 
swamps  in  a  straight  line,  its  possibilities  as  a  mail- 
carrier  were  immediately  realized,  and  steps  were  taken 
in  most  countries  to  establish  aero  mail  routes. 

In  the  United  States  the  first  attempt  to  carry  mail 
was  made  by  Earl  Ovington  from  the  Nassau  Boule- 
vard aerodrome  near  Mineola,  N.  Y.,  September,  1911. 
Postmaster-General  Hitchcock  delivered  a  package  to 
Mr.  Ovington  to  be  carried  to  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  The 
machine  was  a  Bleriot.  The  distance  of  five  and 
one-half  miles  was  made  in  six  minutes.  Two  trips 
a  day  were  made  by  Mr.  Ovington — one  to  and  one 
from  Mineola.  On  Sunday,  September  23,  6,165  post- 
cards, 781  letters,  55  pieces  of  printed  matter  were 
carried.  Captain  Beck  using  a  Curtiss  biplane  also 
carried  20  pounds  of  mail,  and  T.  0.  M.  Sopwith,  using 
a  Wright  machine,  also  carried  some  mail. 

134 


THE    AERO    MAIL  135 

The  first  regular  permanent  aero  mail  service  was 
started  on  May  15,  1918,  at  Belmont  Park,  New  York, 
and  at  the  Polo  Grounds,  Washington,  D.  C.  Leaving 
Belmont  Park,  New  York,  at  11.30  in  the  forenoon 
with  a  full  load  of  344  pounds  of  mail,  Lieutenant 
Tony  S.  Webb  flew  in  one  hour  to  Philadelphia, 
from  which  point  the  mail  was  relayed  through  the 
air  by  Lieutenant  J.  C.  Edgerton,  who  delivered  it  hi 
Washington  at  2.50  P.  M.  The  actual  flying  time  of 
the  two  couriers,  deducting  the  six  minutes'  inter- 
mission in  relaying  at  Philadelphia,  was  three  hours 
and  twenty  minutes.  This  record  was  considered 
highly  satisfactory  for  the  initial  trip  with  new  ma- 
chines. 

Owing  to  a  broken  propeller  Lieutenant  George 
Leroy  Boyle  was  forced  to  descend  in  Maryland  with 
the  aero  mail  bound  for  Philadelphia  and  New  York. 
On  May  16  Lieutenant  Edgerton  flew  from  Washing- 
ton to  Philadelphia  with  the  mail,  making  the  first 
continuous  connection  in  that  direction.  President 
Wilson  and  official  Washington  were  present  at  the 
Polo  Grounds  to  see  the  first  aero  mail  off. 

During  the  year  the  aero  mail  service  has  been  in 
operation  between  Washington,  Philadelphia,  New 
York,  it  has  demonstrated  the  practical  commercial 
utility  of  the  aeroplane. 

On  the  anniversary  the  Post-Office  Department  re- 
leased the  following  summary,  which  gives  us  the  first 
complete  account  of  commercially  operated  air  service, 
dating  over  the  period  of  a  year: 


136  AIRCRAFT 

ONE  YEAR'S  AERO  MAIL  SERVICE 

The  two  aeroplanes  that  took  to  the  air  to-day,  one 
leaving  Washington  and  one  leaving  New  York,  are 
the  same  that  carried  the  mail  a  year  ago,  and  have 
been  constantly  in  the  service,  and  they  are  propelled 
by  the  same  motors.  One  of  these  has  been  in  the 
air  164  hours,  flying  10,716  miles,  and  has  carried 
572,826  letters.  It  has  cost,  in  service,  per  hour, 
$65.80.  Repairs  have  cost  $480.  The  other  plane 
has  been  in  the  air  222  hours,  flying  15,018  miles,  and 
has  carried  485,120  letters.  It  has  cost,  in  service, 
per  hour,  $48.34.  Repairs  to  this  machine  have  cost 
$1,874.76. 

The  record  of  the  entire  service  between  New  York 
and  Washington  shows  92  per  cent  of  performance 
during  the  entire  year,  representing  128,037  miles 
travelled,  and  7,720,840  letters  carried.  The  revenues 
from  aeroplane  mail  stamps  amounted  to  $159,700, 
and  the  cost  of  service,  $137,900.06. 

The  operation  of  the  aeroplane  mail  service  every 
day  in  the  year  except  Sunday,  encountering  all  sorts 
of  weather  conditions  and  meeting  them  successfully, 
has  demonstrated  the  practicability  of  employing  the 
aeroplane  for  commercial  service,  and  the  air  mail 
organization  has  been  able  to  work  out  problems  of 
great  value  in  the  adaptation  of  machines  to  this  char- 
acter of  service.  From  the  inauguration  of  the  ser- 
vice until  the  10th  of  August,  the  flying  operations  were 
conducted  by  the  army,  in  connection  with  its  work  of 


THE    AERO    MAIL  137 

training  aviators  for  the  war.  Since  August  10  it  has 
been  operated  entirely  by  the  Post-Office  Department, 
with  a  civil  organization.  When  the  service  was 
started  there  was  great  divergency  of  opinion  among 
aeronautical  experts  as  to  the  possibility  of  maintain- 
ing a  daily  service  regardless  of  weather  conditions, 
and  the  opinion  was  held  by  many  that  it  would  have 
to  be  suspended  during  the  severe  winter  months. 
The  service  has  been  maintained,  however,  throughout 
the  year  with  a  record  of  92  per  cent,  gales  of  excep- 
tional violence  and  heavy  snow-storms  being  encoun- 
tered and  overcome.  Out  of  1,261  possible  trips,  1,206 
were  undertaken,  and  only  55  were  defaulted  on  ac- 
count of  weather  conditions.  During  rain,  fog,  snow, 
gales,  and  electrical  storms,  435  trips  were  made. 
Out  of  a  possible  138,092  miles,  128,037  miles  were 
flown.  Only  51  forced  landings  were  made  on  account 
of  weather,  and  37  on  account  of  motor  trouble.  It 
has  been  demonstrated  that  flying  conditions  for  such 
a  commercial  service  as  this,  which  is  regulated  by  a 
daily  schedule  regardless  of  the  weather,  are  very- 
different  from  those  of  military  flying.  Aeroplanes 
designed  wholly  for  war  purposes  are  not  suitable  for 
commercial  service,  as  they  lack  the  strength  neces- 
sary for  daily  cross-country  work,  with  its  incidental 
forced  landings.  Aeronautical  engineers  have  devel- 
oped for  the  Post-Office  Department  a  stronger  and 
more  powerful  plane  suitable  for  commercial  service 
while  retaining  the  excellent  flying  qualities  of  the  De 
Havilland  machine.  The  De  Havilland  4's,  which  were 


138  AIRCRAFT 

transferred  to  the  Post-Office  Department  after  the 
signing  of  the  armistice,  are  being  reconstructed  to  fit 
them  for  commercial  requirements.  In  specially  con- 
structed mail-carrying  planes,  for  the  building  of  which 
the  department  has  called  for  bids  to  be  opened  June 
2,  a  form  of  construction  is  called  for  which  will  enable 
a  mechanic  to  make  important  minor  repairs  in  flight, 
making  it  possible  with  a  multiple  motor  to  avoid 
forced  landings. 

DANGER  ELIMINATED 

One  of  the  lessons  learned  from  the  operation  of  the 
air  mail  service  during  the  year  is  that  the  element  of 
danger  that  exists  in  the  training  of  aviators  in  military 
and  exhibition  flying  is  almost  entirely  absent  from 
commercial  flying.  Second  Assistant  Postmaster- 
General  Praeger,  in  reporting  to  the  postmaster-gen- 
eral the  operations  for  the  year,  says  that  the  record 
of  the  air  mail  service,  which  includes  flying  at  alti- 
tudes of  as  low  as  50  feet  during  periods  of  marked 
invisibility,  throws  an  interesting  light  on  this  ques- 
tion. During  the  year,  more  than  128,000  miles  hav- 
ing been  travelled,  no  aeroplane  carrying  the  mail  has 
ever  fallen  out  of  the  sky,  and  there  has  not  been  a 
single  death  of  an  aviator  in  carrying  the  mail.  The 
only  deaths  by  accident  which  have  occurred  were 
that  of  an  aviator  who  made  a  flight  to  demonstrate 
his  qualifications  as  an  aviator  and  that  of  a  mechanic 
who  fell  against  the  whirling  propeller  of  a  machine 
on  the  ground.  But  two  aviators  have  been  injured 


THE    AERO    MAIL  139 

seriously  enough  to  be  sent  to  a  hospital.  Other  acci- 
dents consisted  mainly  of  bruises  and  contusions  sus- 
tained by  planes  turning  over  after  landing.  Of  the 
three  types  of  planes  operated  regularly  in  the  mail 
service,  one  type  was  more  given  than  the  others  to 
turning  over  on  rough  ground,  and  it  was  principally 
on  planes  of  this  type  that  pilots  were  shaken  up  or 
bruised  by  the  plane  turning  turtle.  One  type  of 
machine  in  the  mail  service  which  has  performed  al- 
most half  of  the  work  has  never  turned  turtle.  The 
record  of  the  air  mail  service  with  respect  to  accidents 
will  compare  favorably  with  that  of  any  mode  of  me- 
chanical transportation  in  the  early  days  of  its  opera- 
tion. 

One  of  the  first  studies  to  be  taken  up  by  the  air 
mail  service  was  to  determine  whether  visibility  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  commercial  flying.  The  first 
step  necessary  was  the  refinement  of  the  existing  radio 
direction-finders  so  as  to  eliminate  the  liability  of  3 
to  5  per  cent  of  error.  This  has  been  successfully 
worked  out  by  the  Navy  Department  on  an  air  mail 
testing-plane.  The  second  problem  was  that  of  guid- 
ing the  mail  plane  after  it  had  left  the  field  to  the 
centre  of  the  plot  for  landing.  This  problem  has  been 
solved  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards  in  experiments  con- 
ducted on  the  air  mail  testing-plane  in  connection  with 
the  radio  directional  compass.  This  device  is  effective 
up  to  an  altitude  of  1,500  feet,  and  with  the  further 
refinements  of  the  device  another  thousand  feet  is 
expected  to  be  added.  Aeronautical  engineers  are 


140  AIRCRAFT 

working  upon  a  device  for  the  automatic  landing  of  a 
mechanically  flown  plane  which  would  meet  the  condi- 
tion of  absolute  invisibility  that  could  exist  only  in  the 
most  blinding  snow-storm  or  impenetrable  fog. 

A  year's  flying  in  the  mail  service,  with  all  types 
and  temperaments  of  aviators,  has  established  the  fact 
that  200  feet  visibility  from  the  ground  is  the  limit  of 
practical  flying,  although  a  number  of  runs  have  been 
made  with  the  mail  between  New  York  and  Washing- 
ton during  which  a  part  of  the  trip  was  flown  at  an 
altitude  as  low  as  50  feet.  The  objection  of  aviators  to 
flying  above  a  ground-fog,  rain,  snow,  or  heavy  clouds 
with  single  motor-planes  is  the  possibility  of  the  motor 
stopping  over  a  village,  city,  or  other  bad  landing- 
place,  with  the  radius  of  visibility  so  little  as  to  afford 
no  opportunity  to  pick  out  a  place  for  landing.  It  is 
generally  accepted  that  with  two  or  more  motors, 
forced  landings  under  such  conditions  can  be  avoided. 

FLYING  IN  ROUGHEST  WEATHER 

A  number  of  severe  gales  have  been  encountered 
during  the  flights  between  New  York  and  Washington. 
Gales  of  from  40  to  68  miles  an  hour  have  been  en- 
countered and  overcome.  Pilot  J.  M.  Miller,  who  was 
formerly  a  naval  flier,  made  the  flight  from  Philadelphia 
to  New  York  in  a  Curtiss  R4  with  a  400  horse-power 
Liberty  motor,  rising  from  the  field  against  a  43-mile 
gale  and  arriving  in  New  York  through  a  blinding  snow- 
storm with  a  wind  velocity  reported  by  the  Weather 
Bureau  to  be  68  miles  an  hour  and  which  was  15  per 
cent  greater  at  the  altitude  at  which  he  flew. 


THE    AERO    MAIL  141 

Mr.  Praeger  says  in  his  report  that  from  experience 
it  is  learned  to  be  useless  to  send  against  a  40-mile  gale 
a  plane  having  a  top  speed  of  no  more  than  75  or  80 
miles.  "The  two  types  of  planes  in  the  air  mail  ser- 
vice of  this  speed,"  he  said,  "are  the  Standard  JR  1 
mail  plane,  having  a  wing  spread  of  31  feet  4  inches, 
and  the  Curtiss  JN  4,  having  a  wing  spread  of  43  feet 
7y&  inches.  Each  plane  of  this  type  is  equipped  with  a 
(Hispano-Suiza)  150  horse-power  motor,  which  does  not 
provide  enough  reserve  power  to  combat  the  disturbed 
air  conditions  at  the  surface  in  a  wind  of  more  than  40 
miles  an  hour,  especially  if  the  wind  comes  in  descend- 
ing columns  or  gusts.  Under  these  conditions  it  is  pos- 
sible to  make  headway  only  with  a  Liberty  engine, 
which  has  plenty  of  reserve  power.  A  plane  equipped 
with  a  150  horse-power  motor,  if  it  succeeds  in  break- 
ing through  the  surface  winds,  can  make  only  slow  and 
laborious  headway  against  a  full  or  a  quartered  head 
wind  of  about  40  miles.  There  have  been  many  in- 
stances where  the  planes  equipped  with  150  horse-pow- 
er motors  have  been  held  down  to  a  speed  of  between  30 
and  37  miles  an  hour;  and  also  many  instances  where 
a  hundred-mile-an-hour  plane  equipped  with  a  Liberty 
motor  has  been  held  to  between  55  and  60  miles.  A 
few  wind-storm  conditions  were  encountered  where 
the  planes  at  the  height  of  the  gust  were  actually  car- 
ried backward." 

The  same  six  planes  that  were  in  operation  at  the  in- 
auguration of  the  service,  and  have  been  in  continuous 
employment  during  the  year,  are  in  operation  to-day, 
and  the  one  which  made  the  initial  flight  from  New 


142  AIRCRAFT 

York  to  Washington,  May  15,  1918,  made  the  flight 
May  15,  1919.  This  is  regarded  as  throwing  a  new 
light  on  the  question  of  the  life  of  an  aeroplane  and  as 
demonstrating  that  the  mechanical  requirements  and 
the  operation  in  commercial  flying  are  more  economical 
and  safer  and  in  many  instances  more  practical  than  in 
exhibition  or  military  flying. 

The  fact  that  there  were  only  37  forced  landings  due 
to  mechanical  troubles  during  flights  makes  a  record 
not  heretofore  approached  in  aviation  and  is  creditable 
in  the  American-built  aeroplane  and  mechanics  who 
keep  them  in  fine  condition.  Especially  is  this  record  a 
strong  tribute  to  the  American-built  Liberty  and  His- 
pano-Suiza  motors. 

The  transportation  by  aeroplane  is  ordinarily  twice 
as  fast  as  by  train,  and  on  distances  of  600  miles  or  more, 
no  matter  how  frequent  or  excellent  the  train  service, 
the  aeroplane  mail  at  the  higher  rate  of  postage  should 
equal  the  cost  of  its  operations.  Wherever  the  train 
service  is  not  as  frequent  or  as  fast  as  it  is  between 
Washington  and  New  York  the  aeroplane  operations 
should  show  an  immense  profit  on  all  distances  from 
500  miles  up. 

Again,  with  large  aeroplanes  and  over  greater  dis- 
tances, substantial  saving  in  the  cost  of  mail  transporta- 
tion on  railroads  would  be  made,  besides  cutting  down 
the  time  of  transit  by  one-half. 

BOSTON-NEW  YORK  PATHFINDER  AERO  MAIL 

Another  step  in  the  evolution  of  the  aero  mail  service 
was  made  on  June  6,  1918,  when  Lieutenant  Tony  S. 


THE    AERO    MAIL  143 

Webb  carried  4,000  letters  from  Belmont  Park,  Long 
Island,  N.  Y.,  to  Boston  in  three  hours  and  twenty-two 
minutes,  the  distance  being  250  miles. 

With  R.  Heck,  a  mechanician,  as  passenger,  Lieu- 
tenant Webb  got  away  from  Belmont  Park  at  12.09 
o'clock. 

Two  hours  later,  as  the  aviator  neared  Haddon, 
Conn.,  he  found  that  his  compass  was  working  badly, 
and  he  descended  at  Shailerville  and  fixed  it. 

At  3.31  o'clock  Lieutenant  Webb  circled  over  Saugus, 
Mass.,  near  Revere  Beach  and  Boston,  and  then  planed 
down  on  the  estate  of  Godfrey  Cabot,  now  the  Franklin 
Park  Aviation  Field. 

For  some  reason  or  another,  presumably  lack  of 
funds,  the  service  was  not  made  permanent. 

NEW  YORK-CHICAGO  AERO  MAIL 

September  5,  1918,  the  Post-Office  Department 
started  the  first  pathfinding  mail  service  between  New 
York,  Cleveland,  Chicago.  Mr.  Max  Miller  was  sched- 
uled to  leave  Belmont  Park,  Long  Island,  at  6  A.  M., 
but  owing  to  a  storm  and  the  breaking  of  a  tail-skid  he 
did  not  leave  until  7.08  A.  M.  After  flying  through  a  fog 
he  landed  at  Danville,  N.  Y.,  155  miles  from  New  York 
City,  and  after  getting  his  bearings  Lieutenant  Miller 
next  landed  at  Lock  Haven,  Pa.,  because  his  engine  was 
missing.  At  11.45  A.  M.  he  left  for  Cleveland.  But  the 
fog  continued,  and  he  finally  was  forced  to  land  in  Cam- 
bridge, Pa.,  owing  to  a  leaking  radiator.  After  some 
delay  he  flew  to  Cleveland,  but  owing  to  the  darkness  he 
had  to  remain  there  overnight. 


144  AIRCRAFT 

At  1.35  P.  M.  Lieutenant  Miller  left  for  Bryon,  which 
he  reached  and  left  at  4.35  P.  M.,  and  he  arrived  at 
Grant  Park  at  6.55  P.  M.  The  distance  was  727  miles 
in  a  direct  line. 

On  his  return  trip  he  left  Chicago  on  September  10 
at  6.26  A.  M.  with  3,000  pieces  of  mail,  and  he  landed 
at  Cleveland,  and  leaving  there  at  4.30  P.  M.,  reached 
Lock  Haven,  Pa.,  that  night.  He  left  there  on  Sep- 
tember 10  at  7.20,  and  reached  Belmont  Park  at 
11.22  A.  M. 

Mr.  Edward  V.  Gardner  left  Belmont  Park  at  8.50 
A.  M.,  Thursday,  September  5,  1918,  two  hours  after 
Max  Miller  had  started  in  a  Curtiss  R.  plane,  with  a 
Liberty  motor,  taking  Mr.  Radel  as  mechanic,  and 
carrying  three  pouches  of  mail,  containing  about  3,000 
letters. 

Gardner  landed  at  Bloomburg,  Pa.,  near  Lock  Haven. 
He  reached  Cleveland  before  dark,  and  after  spending 
the  night  there,  on  September  6  Mr.  Gardner  left 
Cleveland  and  landed  at  Bryon  at  5.15  P.  M.,  leaving 
there  for  Chicago  at  5.50  P.  M.,  but  was  compelled  to 
land  at  Westville,  Ind.  He  left  there  the  next  morn- 
ing and  reached  Grant  Park,  Chicago,  at  7.30  A.  M. 
On  his  return  trip  Mr.  Gardner  flew  from  Chicago  to 
New  York  in  one  day,  September  10.  Leaving  at  6.25 
A.  M.,  he  landed  at  Cleveland,  Lock  Haven,  and  landed 
at  Hicksville,  Long  Island,  in  the  dark. 

The  record  non-stop  for  the  727  miles  between  the 
two,  Chicago  and  New  York,  was  made  by  the  army 
pilot  Captain  E.  F.  White  in  six  hours  and  fifty 


THE    AERO    MAIL  145 

minutes,  on  April  19,  1919,  flying  a  D.  H.  4  army 
plane. 

On  May  15,  1919,  the  postal  authorities  intended  to 
inaugurate  aero  mail  service  between  New  York  and 
Chicago,  but  owing  to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  ma- 
chines which  were  being  renovated  from  war-machines 
to  mail-machines  were  not  ready,  that  branch  of  the 
service  had  to  be  postponed  for  a  few  days. 

The  aero  mail  between  Chicago  and  Cleveland  and 
Cleveland  and  Chicago  was  inaugurated.  The  delivery 
at  Cleveland  and  Boston  will  be  reduced  to  some  six- 
teen hours,  and  to  New  York  some  six  hours.  Letters 
mailed  in  New  York  City  in  time  for  the  train  leaving 
at  5.31  P.  M.  will  reach  Chicago  in  time  for  the  3  o'clock 
carrier  delivery  instead  of  the  following  morning  car- 
rier delivery,  as  would  be  the  case  if  sent  all  the  way 
by  train. 

Mail  from  San  Francisco  and  the  entire  Pacific  coast 
States  put  on  Burlington  train  No.  8,  mail  from  South 
Dakota  and  northern  Illinois  put  on  Illinois  Central 
No.  12,  mail  from  northern  Minnesota  and  northern 
Wisconsin  put  on  Northwestern  train  No.  514,  mail 
from  Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  and  Montana  put  on 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  train  No.  18,  and 
mail  from  Kansas  City  and  the  entire  southwest  put 
on  Sante  Fe  train  No.  10,  will  reach  Chicago  in  time 
to  make  connection  with  the  air  mail  eastbound.  The 
air  mail  from  these  trains  will  be  taken  direct  to  the 
air  mail  field.  At  Cleveland  the  air  mail  will  catch 
the  New  York  Central  train  at  4  p.  M.  for  the  East. 


146  AIRCRAFT 

Under  this  arrangement  the  air  mail  will  be  de- 
livered in  Cleveland  and  Boston  on  afternoon  deliveries 
instead  of  the  following  morning.  At  Albany,  N.  Y., 
and  Springfield,  Mass.,  this  mail  will  catch  the  morn- 
ing delivery  instead  of  the  afternoon  following. 

The  aero  mail  stamps  for  this  service  are  the  same  as 
for  the  aero  mail  service  between  Washington  and  New 
York.  It  will  be  recalled  that  originally  the  amount 
necessary  to  carry  a  letter  was  24  cents.  This  was  re- 
duced to  16  cents,  and  finally  to  6  cents,  where  it  now  is. 

Without  a  doubt  when  large  bimotored  machines 
have  been  put  into  aero  mail  service,  letters  will  be 
carried  for  3  cents  apiece  between  New  York  and 
Chicago. 

One  company  has  already  made  a  proposal  to  the 
postal  authorities  to  supplement  the  mail  service  be- 
tween Chicago  and  New  York. 

The  aero  mail  service  between  Chicago  and  Cleve- 
land started  off  on  schedule.  Pilot  Trent  V.  Fry  left 
Chicago  at  9.35  A.  M.,  and  arrived  at  Cleveland  at 
12.48  P.  M.,  in  a  rebuilt  D.  H.  4,  carrying  450  pounds 
of  mail.  The  opening  trip  was  made  in  very  good 
time,  with  a  five-minute  stop  at  Bryon,  Ohio. 

Another  plane  with  Edward  Gardner  as  pilot  left 
Cleveland  at  9.30  A.  M.,  carrying  300  pounds  of  mail, 
arrived  at  Chicago  at  1.25  P.  M. 

FOREIGN  AERO  MAIL  SERVICE 

Aero  mail  service  has  been  started  in  nearly  every 
country  in  Europe,  and  many  South  American  coun- 


THE    AERO    MAIL  147 

tries  are  also  making  plans  for  carrying  mail  by  aero- 
plane. In  May,  1919,  Mr.  Joaquin  Bonilla,  son  of  the 
President  of  Honduras,  visited  the  United  States  to 
see  about  arranging  to  use  New  Orleans  as  one  base 
and  Tegucigalpha  as  another  for  the  aero  mail  landing- 
places. 

Mr.  V.  H.  Barranco,  of  Cuba,  is  also  in  this  country 
for  President  Menocole,  of  Cuba,  to  arrange  aero  mail 
between  Key  West  and  Havana,  Cuba. 

The  French  aerial  mail  service  officially  started  on 
March  1, 1919,  between  Paris  and  Bordeaux,  Marseilles, 
Toulouse,  Brest,  and  St.  Nazaire,  under  the  supervision 
of  the  director  of  civilian  aeronautics. 

THE  PARIS-LILLE  MAIL  SERVICE. — The  aeroplanes 
engaged  in  the  Paris-Lille  mail  service  which  had  been 
instituted  in  April,  1919,  started  from  the  Le  Bourget 
aerodrome.  The  machines  and  pilots  engaged  had 
been  lent  to  the  postal  authorities  by  the  military 
authorities. 

A  daily  postal  service  has  been  started  between 
Avignon  and  Nice  also.  An  aeroplane  carries  mails 
for  Nice  left  at  Avignon  by  the  Paris-Lyons  train  which 
arrives  at  midnight.  A  machine  will  also  deliver  mails 
from  Nice  at  Avignon  in  time  for  the  midnight  train 
for  Paris.  A  regular  postal  service  by  aeroplane  is  also 
announced  between  Rabat  (Morocco)  and  Algiers. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. — London-Paris  (240  miles).  Daily 
passenger  service,  weather  permitting,  by  means  of 
twin-engined  D.  H.  10  biplanes.  Now  being  jointly 
organized  by  the  Aircraft  Transport  and  Travel  (Ltd.), 


148  AIRCRAFT 

of  London,  and  the  Compagnie  Generale  Transaerienne, 
of  Paris.  Average  time,  two  and  one-half  to  three 
hours. 

British  aerial  highways  now  in  operation:  (1)  Lon- 
don to  Hadeigh  (79  miles).  (2)  London  to  Dover  (65 
miles).  (3)  London  to  Easteigh  (53  miles)  to  Setten- 
meyer  (152  miles).  (4)  London  to  Bristol  (95  miles). 
(5)  London  to  Witney  (55  miles)  to  Bromwich  (51 
miles)  to  North  Shot  wick  (72  miles),  and  to  Dublin, 
Ireland  (143  miles).  (6)  London  to  Wyton  (63  miles) 
to  Harlaxton  (41  miles)  to  Carlton  (28  miles)  to  Don- 
caster  (28  miles)  to  York  (27  miles)  to  Catterick  (38 
miles)  to  Redcar  (26  miles).  Chatterick  to  New 
Castle  (42  miles)  to  Urnhouse,  Scotland  (95  miles)  to 
Renfrew,  Scotland  (40  miles).  New  Castle  to  Renfrew 
(124  miles).  (7)  London  to  Hucknall  (114  miles)  to 
Sheffield  (50  miles)  to  Manywellheights  (97  miles). 
Hucknall  to  Didsbury  (52  miles)  to  Scalehall  (50  miles) 
to  Luge  Bay  (99  miles)  to  Aldergrove  and  Belfast,  Ire- 
land (55  miles).  Luge  Bay  to  Renfrew,  Scotland 
(72  miles). 

ITALY. — (1)  Civitavecchia-Terranova,  Sardinia  (150 
miles).  Daily  mail  service  by  means  of  flying-boats. 
Inaugurated  June  27,  1917;  temporarily  discontinued 
during  the  winter  of  1917-18;  reopened  in  March, 
1918.  Average  time,  2  hours.  (2)  Venice-Trieste 
(170  miles) .  (3)  Venice-Pola  (80  miles) .  (4)  Ancona- 
Fiume  (130  miles).  (5)  Ancona-Sara  (90  miles).  (6) 
Brindisi-Cattaro  (150  miles).  (7)  Brindisi-Valeona 
(100  miles). 


THE    AERO    MAIL  149 

Organized  shortly  after  the  signing  of  the  armistice 
with  Austria;  operating  (8)  Genoa-Nice  (100  miles). 
(9)  Genoa-Florence  (120  miles).  (10)  Florence-Rome 
(140  miles).  (11)  Rome-Brindisi  (290  miles). 

Air  mail  lines  (8)  to  (11),  now  being  worked  out,  will 
constitute  the  Italian  section  of  an  interallied  air  mail 
service  to  be  established  between  London,  Paris,  Rome, 
and  Constantinople. 

FRANCE. — (1)  Paris-Mans-St.  Nazaire  (250  miles). 
Daily  mail  service  by  means  of  twin-engined  Letord 
biplanes  (Hispano-Suiza  engines).  Inaugurated  Au- 
gust 15,  1918.  Average  time,  3  hours.  Postage,  75 
centimes  (15  cents).  (2)  Paris-London  (240  miles). 
(3)  Paris-Lyons  (240  miles).  (4)  Lyons-Marseilles 
(165  miles).  (5)  Marseilles-Nice  (140  miles). 

Air  mail  lines  (3)  to  (5),  now  being  organized,  will 
constitute  the  French  section  of  an  interallied  air  mail 
service  to  be  established  between  London,  Paris,  Rome, 
and  Constantinople. 

(6)  Nice-Ajaccio,  Corsica  (150  miles).  Daily  air 
mail  service  by  means  of  flying-boats  about  to  begin 
operations. 

Various  air  mail  lines,  operated  by  the  military,  are 
functioning  in  southern  Algeria  and  Morocco,  chiefly 
for  carrying  official  correspondence.  The  organization 
of  an  air  mail  line  from  Marseilles  via  Algiers  to  Tim- 
buctoo  is  now  being  worked  out.  The  sections 
Biskra-Wargia  (240  miles)  and  Wargia-Inifel  (211 
miles)  and  Inifel-Insala  (223  miles)  are  in  operation. 

GREECE.— (1)    Athens-Janina  (200    miles).    Daily 


150  AIRCRAFT 

mail  service;  inaugurated  August  8, 1918.  (2)  Athens- 
Salonica  (220  miles).  Daily  mail  service  projected. 

DENMARK. — (1)  Copenhagen  -  Odense  -  Fredericia — 
Esierg  (170  miles).  (2)  Copenhagen-Kalundborg- 
Aarhus  (105  miles).  (3)  Copenhagen-Gothenburg- 
Christiania  (330  miles).  Daily  mail  service  projected. 

AUSTRIA. — Vienna-Budapest  (140  miles).  Daily 
mail  service;  inaugurated  July  5, 1918.  Postage,  5.10 
kronen  ($1). 

NORWAY. — (l)  C|hristiania-Stavanger-Bergen- 
Trondhjem  (670  miles).  Oversea  route.  (2)  Chris- 
tiania-Bergen  (200  miles).  Overland  route.  (3)  Sta- 
vanger-Bergen  (100  miles).  Oversea  route. 

Projected  air  mail  lines  to  be  operated  by  the  Nor- 
wegian Air  Routes  Company. 

SPAIN.— (1)  Madrid-Barcelona  (320  miles).  (2) 
Barcelona-Palma,  Balears  (170  miles). 

Projected  air  mail  lines  to  be  operated  by  a  Spanish 
company. 

GERMANY. — Berlin-Munich  (350  miles) .  Daily  mail 
and  passenger  service,  weather  permitting.  Average 
time,  four  and  one-half  hours;  passage,  $1  per  mile. 

Several  other  mail  and  passenger  services  are  oper- 
ating between  the  larger  cities,  but  no  details  are 
available. 


CHAPTER  X 
KINDS  OF  FLYING 

NIGHT  FLYING — FORMATION  FLYING — STUNTING — IM- 
MELMAN  TURN — NOSE  DIVING — TAIL  SPINNING — 
BARREL — FALLING  LEAF,  ETC. 

OWING  to  the  fact  that  skilful  landing  is  the  most 
difficult  thing  for  a  flier  to  acquire,  and  because  more 
accidents  occur  to  the  novice  when  he  brings  his  ma- 
chine to  the  ground  than  at  any  other  time  except, 
perhaps,  when  stunting  too  near  the  ground,  night 
flying  is  especially  hazardous.  With  properly  lighted 
landing-fields  in  peace-times  much  of  the  peril  of  land- 
ing after  dark  can  be  eliminated,  provided  the  night 
is  clear  and  no  fog  or  mist  has  settled  over  the  aero- 
drome since  the  aviators  set  out.  If  a  mist  has  settled 
over  the  landing-place  the  flier  must  take  his  chances 
and  come  down  by  guesswork,  unless  his  machine  is 
equipped  with  wireless  telephone,  for  the  compass  and 
other  instruments  cannot  tell  him  exactly  where  he  is 
with  regard  to  hangars  or  take-off  on  an  aviation-field. 
Indeed,  if  the  telephone  operator  on  the  ground  cannot 
exactly  locate  the  flier,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to 
direct  the  airman  to  the  exact  corner  of  the  field  in 
which  he  should  come  down. 

On  a  clear  night,  however,  with  flambeaux,  search- 
light flares,  etc.,  a  pilot  has  little  trouble  in  landing,  for 

151 


152  AIRCRAFT 

the  straightaway  can  be  as  illuminated  as  it  is  in  broad 
daylight.  Nevertheless,  when  the  aircraft  is  high  in 
the  sky,  owing  to  the  vast  distances  of  infinite  space, 
the  speed  at  which  an  aeroplane  moves,  and  the  drift 
out  of  its  regular  course,  due  to  the  wind,  it  is  often 
difficult  for  the  flier  to  keep  his  bearings.  For  that 
reason  aviators  try  at  night  to  locate  the  lights  on  a 
railroad-track,  the  reflection  of  light  on  a  river  or  stream, 
and  follow  them  to  their  destination.  The  Germans 
in  then*  raids  on  London  usually  tried  to  locate  the 
Thames  River,  which  they  then  followed  until  they 
reached  the  metropolis,  which  they  usually  succeeded 
in  doing  on  moonlight  nights  despite  the  British  long- 
rayed  search-lights,  swift-climbing  Sopwith  Camels, 
and  the  barrages  formed  by  the  thousands  of  anti- 
aircraft guns.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  no  adequate  means 
of  preventing  aeroplane  raids  was  developed  by  any 
of  the  countries  involved  in  the  Great  War,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  there  is  no  way  of  screening  off  a 
metropolis  so  that  those  modern  dragon-flies  cannot  fly 
around,  over,  or  through  the  screen.  That  is  another 
reason  why  a  huge  commercial  aerial  fleet  will  always 
be  a  tremendous  danger  and  perpetual  threat  to  any 
contiguous  country  or  neighboring  city,  because  these 
aerial  freighters  can  be  loaded  with  inextinguishable 
incendiary  bombs  as  easily  as  with  passengers,  and 
10,000  such  aeroplanes  could  drop  on  a  city  within  a 
hundred  miles  of  its  border  enough  chemical  explosives 
to  raze  it  by  fire. 
Considering  all  the  chances  taken  by  the  Hun  and 


KINDS    OF    FLYING  153 

the  Allied  fliers  during  the  Great  War,  and  the  kinds  of 
machines  they  flew,  and  the  circumstances  under 
which  they  flew,  it  is  amazing  how  successful  they 
both  were  in  their  night-raids  on  one  another's  terri- 
tory, and  the  amount  of  damage  they  wrought. 
Every  night,  rain  or  shine,  the  British  and  French  and 
Americans  dumped  from  forty  to  fifty  tons  of  high 
explosives  on  German  objectives,  and  it  is  truly  amaz- 
ing how  few  machines  were  lost. 

Night  flying  for  commercial  purposes,  though,  might 
easily  be  developed  into  a  comparatively  safe  means 
of  aerial  transportation.  The  machines,  however, 
ought  to  be  constructed  like  the  Sopwith  Camel,  with 
a  very  fast  climbing  and  a  very  low  landing  speed,  in 
order  to  get  clear  of  obstacles  quickly  and  to  come  to 
a  stop  as  soon  as  it  reached  the  earth.  The  wing-tips 
should  be  equipped  with  lights,  and  small  red  and 
green  lights,  called  navigation  lights,  should  be  in- 
stalled on  port  aad  starboard  struts.  Under  the 
fuselage  a  signalling  light  could  be  used,  and  Very 
lights,  rockets,  parachute  flares,  or  Borse  flares  could 
be  employed,  as  in  war,  to  illuminate  the  fields,  give 
the  pilot  a  clew  to  his  whereabouts,  and  at  the  same 
time  reveal  to  the  wireless-telephone  operator  on  the 
ground  the  position  of  the  ship  in  the  air.  This  would 
also  prevent  collisions.  Care  should  be  exercised  so 
as  not  to  blind  the  pilot  when  he  makes  his  landing.  An 
electrically  lighted  "T"  with  observation-towers  would 
also  aid  in  the  safe  landing  of  an  airship  at  night. 

With  the  growth  of  flying,  lighthouses  and  captive 


154  AIRCRAFT 

balloons  poised  high  above  the  fog  or  clouds  will  un- 
doubtedly be  established  all  over  the  land,  equipped 
with  different  lights  so  as  to  indicate  to  the  flier  just 
where  he  is  located.  The  French  have  already  devel- 
oped such  a  system. 

Of  course  a  forced  landing  at  night  is  very  danger- 
ous, and  this  may  happen  at  any  moment.  It  was  re- 
ported that  a  pilot  was  killed  every  night  patrolling 
over  the  cities  of  Paris  and  London  looking  for  Boches. 
It  was  also  reported  that  every  Hun  plane  brought 
down  during  a  raid  on  Paris  cost  the  French  Govern- 
ment $3,000,000  in  ammunition,  aircraft,  etc. 

With  the  establishment  of  municipal  aerodromes  at 
regular  intervals,  equipped  with  proper  lights,  signal- 
ling devices,  wireless  telephones,  night  flying  can  be 
made  as  safe  as  night  sailing  along  the  coasts,  and 
with  the  increase  in  the  size  and  number  of  aircraft, 
night  flying  will  become  as  commonplace  as  day  flying. 

STUNTING 

There  is  no  gainsaying  that  stunt  flying,  or  aerial 
acrobatics,  was  absolutely  essential  to  the  flying  of 
scout  and  combat  machines  in  the  Great  War,  for  in 
order  to  survive  in  the  war  in  the  air  it  was  necessary  for 
the  pilot  to  be  able  to  manoeuvre  and  dodge  about  in 
the  sky  as  easily  as  a  fish  in  the  water;  otherwise,  the 
flier  would  be  shot  down  by  a  more  agile  machine  or 
clever  aviator.  Clouds  offered  such  excellent  cover 
for  aeroplanes  to  ambush  unsuspecting  novices,  and 
decoys  were  often  placed  to  induce  some  adventurous 


KINDS    OF    FLYING  155 

combat  machine  to  dive  down  on  the  decoy,  only  to 
find  that  a  formation  of  five  or  more  aeroplanes  were 
diving  down  on  him.  To  escape  from  such  a  predica- 
ment required  knowledge  of  all  the  manoeuvres  an 
aeroplane  could  possibly  make. 

Moreover,  every  pilot  ought  to  know  how  to  per- 
form these  stunts  even  in  peace-time  flying,  so  that, 
if  his  engine  stalls  and  he  falls  into  a  spinning  nose 
dive,  he  will  know  just  what  to  do  in  order  to  get  out 
of  it.  The  same  is  true  of  banking,  side-slipping,  etc. 

Finally,  since  an  aeroplane  moves  through  the  air 
as  a  submarine  passes  through  water,  it  should  be 
designed  so  as  to  be  able  to  take  stresses  from  every 
quarter,  so  that  if  the  machine  loops  or  flies  upside 
down  a  vital  part  will  not  break  because  the  pressure 
is  reversed. 

Stunting  should  never  be  performed  less  than  2,000 
feet  above  the  ground.  It  has  been  done  by  reckless 
pilots  in  exhibition  flights  countless  times  with  im- 
punity; nevertheless,  many  of  the  most  daring  and 
clever  pilots  have  lost  their  lives  just  by  taking  such 
foolhardy  chances.  Altitude  is  absolutely  essential  to 
recover  equipoise  necessary  to  a  safe  landing,  especially 
when  a  forced  landing  must  be  made.  Eventually  a 
law  will  be  passed  preventing,  on  pain  of  forfeiting  of  a 
license,  looping,  spinning,  etc.,  below  a  certain  alti- 
tude. The  result  will  be  a  decrease  in  the  number  of 
flying  casualties  and  a  proportionate  increase  in  the 
confidence  of  the  public  in  the  aeroplane  as  a  safe 
and  sane  medium  of  aerial  transportation. 


156  AIRCRAFT 

A  VERTICAL  BANK 

This  term  is  applied  to  all  turns  or  banks  made  at 
45  degrees  or  over.  With  proper  speed  there  is  no 
particular  danger  in  this  manoeuvre,  and  is  performed 
by  putting  the  rudder  and  control  lever  farther  over 
than  hi  an  ordinary  turn.  To  come  out  of  a  vertical 
bank  is  to  give  opposite  rudder  and  to  pull  the  control 
lever  central  again  and  slightly  forward.  When  the 
machine  continues  around  the  circle  it  becomes  a 
spiral. 

SPIRAL 

A  spiral  descent  is  made  with  the  engine  cut  off, 
and  the  pilot  should  always  keep  his  eyes  on  the  centre 
of  the  circle.  When  the  angle  becomes  too  steep,  he 
flattens  her  out  a  little  so  that  he  does  not  side-slip  or 
skid,  and  if  the  descent  is  too  rapid,  he  pulls  the  con- 
trol lever  back  slightly.  When  the  bank  is  too  pro- 
nounced, the  rudder  and  elevator  change  functions, 
and  the  pilot  must  bring  them  back  to  their  proper 
positions  at  once. 

ZOOMING 

Zooming  is  really  making  an  aeroplane  suddenly 
jump  several  hundred  feet  into  the  air  after  flying  near 
the  ground.  This  is  essential  sometimes  in  order  to 
clear  a  hangar  or  telegraph-pole  near  the  ground. 
Fliers  in  the  Great  War  did  it  when  attacking  aero- 
dromes. No  zoom,  however,  can  be  made  unless  the 
machine  has  got  up  full  speed,  for  it  is  only  this  mo- 
mentum that  permits  the  aeroplane  to  climb  so  steeply 


l 


The  so-called  "Immelman  turn." 

The  lower  machine  is  turning  on  its  back,  while  travelling  forward,  preparatory 

to  diving. 


KINDS    OF    FLYING  157 

and  suddenly.  The  stunt  is  done  by  jerking  the  con- 
trol lever  back  suddenly,  which  causes  the  nose  to 
climb  steeply.  The  control  is  then  pushed  forward 
equally  as  suddenly,  just  as  the  machine  has  reached 
the  stalling-point  and  is  about  to  fall  over  on  its  side. 
To  avoid  that,  the  control  lever  must  be  pushed  for- 
ward, forcing  the  nose  down,  and  allowing  the  machine 
to  gain  its  velocity,  otherwise  it  will  lose  its  flying 
speed  and  crash. 

LOOPING 

This  stunt  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  continuing 
the  zoom  until  the  machine  flies  upside  down  and 
completes  a  complete  circle  perpendicular  to  the 
ground.  It  is  a  very  simple  manoeuvre,  and  was  very 
necessary  in  aerial  duels.  Some  machines  were  built 
so  that  they  could  loop  easily.  To  loop,  a  machine 
must  always  get  momentum  enough  in  its  descent  to 
complete  the  circle.  To  start  the  loop,  the  control 
lever  must  be  pulled  far  back,  so  that  the  nose  rears 
vertically  upward  and  over,  and  remains  in  an  upside- 
down  position  for  a  few  seconds.  In  this  position  he 
must  cut  off  his  engine,  ease  up  the  stick,  slowly  cen- 
tring the  control.  The  engine  can  be  switched  on 
again  as  soon  as  the  steepness  of  the  circle  has  de- 
creased. 

Before  looping,  a  machine  should  be  carefully  in- 
spected because  of  the  reversing  of  stresses,  which 
may  cause  the  breaking  of  a  vital  part.  Another 
danger  in  looping  is  the  stalling  or  stopping  of  the  en- 
gine anywhere  before  the  first  half  of  the  loop  has  been 


158  AIRCRAFT 

made,  thus  causing  the  aeroplane  to  fall  over  on  its 
side  and  into  a  tail  spin  or  spinning  nose  dive. 

NOSE  DIVES 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  a  pilot  must  have  altitude 
in  order  to  get  out  of  a  nose  dive,  it  is  well  not  to  try 
them  near  the  ground.  The  pilot  should  be  well 
strapped  in  so  as  not  to  be  thrown  forward  on  the  con- 
trols. It  is  made  by  pulling  the  nose  straight  down. 
The  engine  should  be  shut  off  to  minimize  the  strain 
on  the  machine.  Many  nose  dives  end  in  a  zoom, 
and  they  were  very  common  performances  in  air  duels. 
A  machine  whose  wings  are  not  sufficiently  strong 
may  fold  up  like  a  book  when  levelled  out  at  the  end 
of  a  dive  and  crash. 

IMMELMAN  TURN 

This  stunt  consists  of  completing  the  first  half  of  a 
loop,  then  turning  the  machine  completely  about  and 
facing  the  other  direction.  This  manoeuvre  was 
named  after  the  famous  German  ace.  The  engine 
can  be  cut  out  when  the  machine  turns  about  and 
dives. 

The  cart-wheel,  boot-lacing,  falling  leaf,  the  roll 
and  the  barrel  are  all  parts  of  this  same  stunt,  and 
are  often  mistaken  for  one  another.  The  cart-wheel 
is  done  by  diving  or  getting  up  speed,  then  making 
the  machine  zoom.  When  the  aeroplane  is  almost 
standing  on  its  tail,  but  before  it  has  lost  flying  speed 
and  controllability,  the  rudder  forces  the  ship  into  a 


Diagram  illustrating  the  reversal  of  position  effected  by  a  "loop." 


Diagram  illustrating  the  execution  of  the  so-called 
"Immelman  turn." 

1.  First  position  of  the  machines.  2.  The  forward  machine 
preparing  to  turn  over.  3.  Partially  over.  4.  The  for- 
ward machine  upside  down  but  still  travelling  forward. 
5.  Beginning  the  dive.  6.  Completing  the  dive  and 
straightening  up. 


KINDS    OF    FLYING  159 

bank  in  the  same  direction,  forming  a  complete  cart- 
wheel, coming  out  and  facing  the  opposite  direction. 

The  falling  leaf  is  done  by  a  modification  of  this 
manoeuvre,  causing  the  machine  to  fall  over  on  one 
wing-tip,  and  then  bringing  it  into  control  again,  thus 
causing  the  machine  to  turn  over  like  a  leaf  in  the  air. 
This  is  a  hazardous  manoeuvre,  and  requires  pulling 
the  rudder  violently  from  side  to  side. 

Upside-down  flying  and  tail  spinning  is  difficult  ex- 
cept to  certain  types  of  machines;  of  course  it  cannot 
be  done  for  any  length,  and  usually  terminates  in  a 
tail  spin,  when  the  machine  descends  like  the  threads 
of  a  screw. 

Naturally,  there  are  air  disturbances  about  a  machine 
when  performing  these  stunts,  and  bumps  are  frequent 
owing  to  that  phenomena.  They  ought  never  to  be 
tried  by  a  novice  close  to  the  ground.  They  are,  how- 
ever, very  spectacular,  and  for  that  reason  often  seen 
at  aerodromes  or  flying  exhibitions.  Indeed,  Lieu- 
tenant B.  C.  Maynard  has  a  record  of  318  consecutive 
loops. 

FOKMATION  FLYING 

Flying  like  ducks  in  the  form  of  a  spear-head  and 
in  groups  of  from  3  to  300  or  more  was  inaugurated 
by  the  German  ace  of  aces,  the  Baron  Von  Richtho- 
fen,  who  was  credited  with  shooting  down  eighty  Allied 
planes  in  the  Great  War.  Before  this,  however,  it  was 
discovered  that  flying  in  pairs  was  more  safe  than  fly- 
ing alone.  With  the  development  of  the  wireless  tele- 
phone the  numbers  in  the  formation  were  increased 


160  AIRCRAFT 

until,  in  October,  1918,  the  Americans  made  a  raid  on 
Waville  with  350  machines  in  formations. 

These  formations  were  called  circuses,  first  because 
of  the  gaudy  camouflage  which  covered  the  red  baron 
and  his  German  machines;  often  they  placed  decoys 
beneath  clouds,  and  when  an  unsuspecting  scout  de- 
scended on  the  decoy,  the  circus  dived  on  the  scout. 
This  was  done  by  both  sides,  so  that  it  became  very 
unsafe  to  fly  alone,  or  even  in  pairs,  on  the  West  Front. 

The  flight  commander's  machine  was  usually  marked 
with  a  trailing  colored  streamer,  and  he  usually  flew 
at  the  apex  of  the  spear-head.  The  second  in  com- 
mand usually  had  his  machine  also  specially  marked, 
so  that  if  anything  happened  to  the  leader  he  could  take 
command.  The  commander  often  signalled  by  firing 
Very  pistols.  These  same  formations  were  also  used 
for  bombing  and  reconnaissance.  Formation  flying 
was  also  very  useful  for  strafing  the  enemy  on  the 
ground  during  the  last  four  drives  of  the  Germans  in 
1918.  Groups  of  six  machines  were  used  for  this 
manoeuvre  with  great  effect.  Whether  or  not  forma- 
tion flying  will  become  popular  in  peace-times  remains 
to  be  seen.  In  case  of  a  crash  of  one  machine  the 
others  could  bring  aid  quickly,  or  carry  the  occupants  to 
their  original  destination. 


CHAPTER  XI 
AERIAL  NAVIGATION 

ATMOSPHERIC  CONDITIONS — WINDS  AND  THEIR  WAYS — 
CLOUD  FORMATIONS,  NAMES,  AND  ALTITUDES 

JUST  as  the  navigator  must  know  the  sea,  so  the  avi- 
ator must  have  a  knowledge  of  the  heavens  and  the  ba- 
sic principles  of  aerodynamics  in  order  to  become  a  suc- 
cessful pilot.  Although  the  air  is  volatile  like  the  wa- 
ter, the  aviator  flies  through  it  as  a  fish  moves  through 
water.  Therefore  the  aerial  navigator  must  know 
enough  about  the  medium  through  which  he  travels 
to  know  what  to  do  in  an  emergency.  Through  a 
knowledge  with  the  fundamental  principles  of  meteor- 
ology the  fliers  may  know  what  to  expect  in  the  form 
of  disturbances  to  the  atmosphere,  and  how  to  meet 
those  conditions. 

For  aeroplane  flight  a  calm  clear  day  is  the  best. 
Then  eddies  and  storms  are  not  encountered,  although 
the  air  is  never  absolutely  free  from  the  former  in  some 
degree.  Even  a  strong  gale  is  not  a  hindrance  to 
flying,  as  the  United  States  aero-mail  and  hundreds 
of  machines  on  the  battle-fronts  have  repeatedly  dem- 
onstrated. Mists,  fogs,  and  low-hanging  clouds  are 
the  greatest  impediments  to  flying  where  the  machines 
are  not  fitted  up  with  wireless  telephones  or  directional 

161 


162  AIRCRAFT 

wireless.  For  first  flights  the  early  morning  and  late 
evening  afford  the  calmest  atmospheric  conditions. 

Air,  like  water,  seeks  the  level  where  the  lowest  pres- 
sure exists.  It  is  1,600  times  lighter  than  water,  and 
it  extends  to  some  50  miles  above  the  earth.  One 
half  of  its  weight  is  below  the  three-mile  limit.  Atmos- 
pheric pressure  is  variable,  and  the  temperature  of  the 
air  usually  decreases  with  the  altitude,  so  that  it  is 
often  very  cold  up  in  the  air  when  it  is  compara- 
tively cold  on  the  ground.  For  that  reason  electrically 
heated  clothing  or  cabins,  heated  from  the  engine,  are 
used  to  keep  the  pilot  and  passengers  warm. 

The  change  in  the  temperature  of  the  earth  sets  the 
air  in  motion,  so  that  portions  that  are  heated  by  the 
sun's  rays  faster  than  other  portions  affect  the  at- 
mosphere more  quickly  in  that  locality  than  in  others, 
for  the  heated  air  rushes  up  by  expansion  and  the 
cooler  air  will  rush  into  the  vacated  place.  With  the 
repetition  of  this  the  movement  of  the  air  increases. 
Thus  high-pressure  areas  and  low-pressure  areas  are 
formed.  A  glance  at  a  United  States  Weather-Bureau 
map  will  show  the  location  and  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure at  various  places  in  the  United  States,  and  the  in- 
telligent reading  of  the  same  will  be  of  infinite  useful- 
ness to  the  aviator.  The  atmospheric  pressure  is 
measured  by  a  barometer.  It  is  measured  by  a  column 
of  mercury  necessary  to  balance  it.  This  same  atmos- 
pheric pressure  is  used  to  operate  the  altimeter,  which 
tells  the  aviator  how  high  he  has  climbed. 

A  falling  barometer  indicates  the  approach  of  a 


AERIAL    NAVIGATION          163 

storm  and  a  rising  barometer  fair  weather.  Wind 
strength  is  usually  indicated  by  miles  at  which  the 
storm  is  raging.  In  the  early  days  of  aviation  the 
aviator  used  to  wet  his  finger  to  see  if  the  wind  was 
stirring  and  what  quarter  it  was  from.  If  it  was 
blowing  many  miles  an  hour,  he  would  not  venture 
forth. 

In  starting  or  landing  a  machine  it  is  always  desira- 
ble to  head  into  the  wind.  It  is  true  that  in  forced 
landings  pilots  have  come  down  with  the  wind,  but  for 
every  foot  they  must  make  an  allowance. 

Atmospheric  pressure  also  has  much  to  do  with  the 
flying  efficiency  of  the  wings.  The  heat  generated  on 
the  surface  of  the  planes  used  by  the  United  States 
army  in  Mexico  caused  the  dope  to  peal  in  some  cases 
and  rendered  the  planes  unfit  to  fly. 

The  flier  should,  however,  know  something  about 
the  kinds  of  winds  which  prevail  and  the  times  of  the 
day  when  the  most  violent  are  to  be  encountered.  At 
the  earth's  surface  the  day  winds  are  stronger  than 
the  night  winds,  and  the  average  velocity  of  the  day 
wind  is  about  eleven  miles  an  hour.  Because  of  the 
similarity  of  the  movements  of  the  winds  to  those  of 
water,  many  of  the  terms  applied  to  air  movements 
are  the  same. 

When  an  upward  movement  of  wind  rises  from 
barren  land  or  conical  hills,  it  is  called  an  aerial  foun- 
tain. Sometimes  this  air  rises  at  a  velocity  of  twenty- 
five  feet  per  second.  Sometimes  an  aeroplane  when 
caught  in  one  of  these  fountains  will  rise  like  a  cork 


164  AIRCRAFT 

on  the  top  of  a  water-spout,  or  the  wing  will  be  tilted 
if  it  is  hit  by  this  column  of  hot  air. 

An  aerial  cataract  is  caused  by  descending  cold  air, 
and  has  the  opposite  effect  on  an  aeroplane  flying 
through  the  air  to  that  of  the  fountain.  These  are 
encountered  in  flying  over  veiy  broken  ground. 

Aerial  cascades  are  encountered  often  in  flying  over 
narrow  valleys  or  steep  hills.  The  contours  of  the 
land  cause  the  air  to  follow  down  into  the  valleys  sud- 
denly, thus  often  making  it  dangerous  for  fliers  to  at- 
tempt to  land  on  rivers  enclosed  in  steep  banks,  unless 
of  course  they  fly  up  or  down  the  river. 

With  aerial  torrents  the  same  principle  applies,  ex- 
cept that  the  area  of  disturbance  is  broader  and  more 
powerful.  Great  velocity  is  attained  near  open  val- 
leys, due  to  the  cold  air  rushing  to  replace  the  hot  air 
moving  upward.  A  cross,  choppy  wind  will  cause 
choppy  air  surfaces  and  bad  eddies,  and  can  be  dis- 
cerned on  a  cloudy  day  by  rips  in  the  surface  of  clouds. 

Over  the  crests  of  hills  vertical  eddies  are  encoun- 
tered. They  are  usually  called  pockets  by  fliers. 
Often  the  machine  drops  straight  down,  and  the  pilot 
should  immediately  head  his  machine  into  the  current. 
Sometimes  winds  will  be  found  blowing  in  different 
directions  and  passing  in  layers  above  one  another. 
These  have  a  tendency  to  turn  the  ship  about,  and  is 
one  of  the  reasons  why  the  aviators  prefer  to  get  alti- 
tude before  doing  any  stunt  flying.  Except  close  to 
the  ground  these  contrary  winds  are  not  dangerous. 
So  just  as  a  vessel  is  safest  far  from  a  coast  in  a  storm, 


AERIAL    NAVIGATION          165 

so  an  aeroplane  is  safest  at  a  reasonable  altitude  where 
the  wind  is  not  so  bumpy. 

Clouds  and  mist  are  two  of  the  worst  enemies  of  the 
aerial  navigator;  first  because  it  shuts  off  the  ob- 
server's vision  of  the  terrain,  preventing  him  from 
knowing  exactly  where  he  is,  and  because  it  makes  it 
difficult  for  him  to  locate  his  landing-field.  Direc- 
tional wireless  and  the  wireless  telephone  do  help  a 
great  deal  in  giving  information  about  the  lay  of  the 
land  beneath  the  clouds  or  mist,  but  of  course  it  cannot 
visualize  the  ground  on  which  the  aeroplane  is  to  land 
for  the  pilot  to  see  exactly  where  he  should  set  the 
wheels  down.  For  that  reason  a  knowledge  of  clouds 
is  essential  to  piloting  aircraft. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  clouds,  but  they 
are  all  formed  by  condension  when  an  ascending  vol- 
ume of  moist  air  mingles  with  another  mass  of  a  differ- 
ent temperature,  or  when  a  mass  of  arising  vapor  con- 
denses. With  a  knowledge  of  the  direction  clouds 
are  moving  in  it  will  reveal  certain  facts  about  the 
weather  to  the  pilot.  Clouds  take  almost  every  con- 
ceivable shape. 

A  general  knowledge  of  the  movement  of  the  clouds 
is  a  valuable  asset  to  the  flier,  for  they  indicate  the  air- 
currents  and  also  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  in 
their  neighborhood.  Unbroken  clouds  indicate  smooth- 
flowing  air,  while  the  more  a  cloud  is  broken  the  more 
bumpy  the  air-currents  are  in  that  neighborhood. 
From  the  formation  of  clouds  then  the  atmospheric 
conditions  may  be  realized  by  the  pilot  before  he  flies 


166  AIRCRAFT 

into  them.  In  general  the  following  types  of  clouds 
indicate  certain  specific  facts  to  airmen. 

A  mackerel  sky,  called  technically  Cirro-Cumulus, 
which  is  formed  of  small  globular  masses,  or  white 
flakes  showing  only  light  shadows,  or  at  most  only 
very  light  ones,  or  arranged  in  groups  or  in  lines, 
usually  at  a  height  of  10,000  to  25,000  feet,  denote  fine 
weather,  and  for  commercial  flying  afford  ample  op- 
portunity for  smooth  flying  below  that  altitude. 

Very  light,  whitish  wisps  of  clouds,  fibrous  in  ap- 
pearance, with  no  shadows  which  appear  at  30,000 
feet  altitude,  or  more,  are  the  highest  clouds  in  the 
firmament,  are  called  Cirrus  or  Mare's  Tails,  because 
they  are  scattered  like  hair  over  the  sky.  They  in- 
dicate wind  and  a  cyclonic  depression. 

The  next  clouds  in  altitude  are  the  Cirro-Stratus, 
which  float  29,500  feet,  and  look  like  a  thin  sheet  of 
tangled  web  structure.  They  are  whitish,  and  some- 
times completely  cover  the  heavens,  giving  it  a  milky 
appearance.  This  cloud  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful, 
and  often  creates  moon  and  sun  halos.  It  indicates 
bad  weather. 

The  Alto-Stratus  is  a  thick  extensive  sheet  of  bluish 
or  gray  cloud,  sometimes  composed  of  a  thick  fibrous 
structure  which  is  very  dense  and  impossible  to  pene- 
trate with  the  eye.  They  are  at  an  average  height  of 
from  10,000  to  23,000  feet,  and  cause  a  luminous  crown 
or  aureole  around  the  sun  or  moon. 

Woolpack  Clouds,  or  Cumulus,  as  they  are  desig- 
nated, are  thick,  and  the  upper  surfaces  are  dome- 


AERIAL    NAVIGATION          167 

shaped,  with  many  sharp  protuberances,  and  with 
horizontal  bases.  They  are  low-lying  and  indicate 
violent  disturbances  of  the  air,  and  are  dangerous  for 
any  kind  of  aircraft  when  passing  above  them  or 
through  them. 

Thunder-Clouds,  or  Cumulo-Nimbus,  are  formed  in 
heavy  masses  rising  in  the  forms  of  turrets,  mountains, 
or  animals.  They  are  usually  surrounded  by  a  screen 
or  sheet  of  fibrous  appearance,  having  its  base  in  a 
similar  formation.  The  highest  points  of  these  clouds 
reach  an  altitude  of  10,000  to  26,000  feet,  and  they 
are  as  low  as  4,000  feet  at  the  base.  They  indicate 
lightning  and  terrific  gusts  of  wind,  and  are  very 
dangerous  to  aerial  navigators. 

The  whitish-gray  globular  masses  partly  shaded, 
piled  up  in  groups  and  lines,  and  often  so  thickly  packed 
that  their  edges  appear  confused,  are  called  Alto- 
Cumulus.  They  are  arranged  in  groups  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  from  10,000  to  23,000  feet.  They  do  not 
look  unlike  the  mackerel  sky.  The  cross-lines  indicate 
strong  currents  of  air. 

Strato-Cumulus  are  dark  globular  masses  of  large 
clouds,  often  covering  the  whole  heavens  in  the  fall 
and  the  winter.  They  hang  as  low  as  6,000  feet,  and 
always  predict  changing  weather. 

The  lowest-hanging  cloud  of  all  is  the  Stratus,  which 
is  uniform  at  a  height  anywhere  from  100  to  3,500  feet. 
It  may  be  either  drifting  or  stationary.  It  is  a  uni- 
form layer,  and  resembles  a  fog,  but,  unlike  the  latter, 
it  does  not  rest  on  the  ground. 


168  AIRCRAFT 

The  Nimbus  is  a  thick  layer  of  dark  clouds  with 
ragged  edges  but  without  shape.  Rain  or  snow  usually 
falls  from  this  formation.  There  are  many  rifts  in 
these  clouds,  and  through  them  many  higher  clouds 
are  seen.  The  Nimbus  usually  occupy  altitudes  from 
300  to  6,500  feet. 


CHAPTER  XII 
COMMERCIAL  FLYING 

BUSINESS     POSSIBILITIES     OF     THE     AEROPLANE — SOME 
CELEBRATED     AIR     RECORDS — GERMANY'S     INITIAL 

ADVANTAGE — A     HUGE     INVESTMENT CAUSES     OF 

ACCIDENTS — DISCOMFORTS  OVERCOME — INEXPEN- 
SIVE FLYABOUTS — THE  SPORTS  TYPE — ARCTIC 
FLIGHT — NO  EAST  OR  WEST 

IN  the  face  of  the  extraordinary  development  of  the 
aeroplane  and  what  it  has  accomplished  hi  the  Great 
War,  both  for  the  Hun  and  the  Ally,  it  seems  almost 
incredible  that  it  was  only  as  recent  as  December  17, 
1903,  that  the  Wright  brothers  made  man's  first  suc- 
cessful sustained  and  steered  flight  hi  a  heavier-than- 
air  machine  driven  by  a  gas-engine  over  the  sand-dunes 
of  Kitty  Hawk,  North  Carolina !  Upon  that  historic 
occasion  Wilbur  Wright  flew  852  feet  in  fifty-nine  sec- 
onds, and  his  four-cylinder  gas-engine  could  generate 
only  12  horse-power ! 

Since  then  an  aeroplane  has  carried  an  aviator  from 
Paris  via  Constantinople  to  Cairo,  Egypt;  a  biplane 
driven  by  a  300  horse-power  gas-engine  has  climbed  to 
an  altitude  of  28,900  feet;  another  with  a  450  horse- 
power engine  has  ascended  with  two  men  to  an  alti- 
tude of  30,500  feet;  still  another,  with  a  wing  spread 
of  127  feet,  propelled  by  four  twelve-cylinder  motors 

169 


170  AIRCRAFT 

developing  450  horse-power  each,  has  lifted  forty  peo- 
ple to  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet  for  an  hour's  cruise  over 
London.  Still  another  machine  of  the  same  type,  but 
with  only  100  feet  of  wing  spread,  and  propelled  by 
only  two  400  horse-power  engines,  has  transported 
five  men  and  a  useful  load  of  a  ton  all  the  way  from 
London  to  Constantinople  and  back  to  Saloniki,  a 
distance  of  more  than  2,000  miles,  and  has  carried  six 
people  from  London  via  France,  Italy,  Egypt,  Pales- 
tine, Arabia  to  Delhi,  India,  a  distance  of  over  6,000 
miles.  A  two-seater,  with  a  pilot  and  mechanic,  has 
flown  from  Turin  to  Naples  and  back,  a  distance  of  920 
miles,  without  stopping!  On  April  25,  1919,  an  F-5 
U.  S.  Naval  seaplane,  carrying  four  aviators,  flew  1,250 
miles  in  twenty-four  hours  and  ten  minutes  without 
stopping.  A  late  report  from  Italy  says  that  a  huge 
triplane,  measuring  150  feet,  weighing  many  tons,  and 
driven  by  three  700  horse-power  engines  has  taken 
seventy-eight  people  up  for  a  ride  at  one  time.  A 
piano  has  been  freighted  in  another  aeroplane  from 
London  to  Paris.  The  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  and  the 
Taurus  Mountains  have  been  aerially  transnavigated 
by  aeroplane.  The  Sahara  Desert,  the  Pyramids,  the 
English  Channel,  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Adriatic 
Seas  have  been  flown  over  in  heavier-than-air  machines. 
In  the  war  zone  the  aeroplane  has  been  put  to  the 
most  astonishing  uses.  It  has  spied  out  the  most  hid- 
den secrets  of  the  enemy;  it  has  dropped  spies  behind 
his  lines;  it  has  photographed  thousands  of  square  miles 
of  European  and  Asiatic  terrain;  it  has  directed  the 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING         171 

fire  of  artillery  and  the  march  of  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  troops;  it  has  scattered  cigarettes  over  advancing 
soldiers;  it  has  dropped  cans  of  tomatoes  to  thirsty 
and  hungry  men  in  isolated  stretches  of  the  desert; 
it  has  carried  food  to  besieged  camps;  it  has  bombed 
trains,  concentrations  of  soldiers,  ammunition-dumps 
and  ammunition-factories,  gas-plants,  and  innumerable 
other  military  and  manufacturing  objectives.  It  has 
performed  more  manoeuvres  in  the  air  than  the  tum- 
bler pigeon.  It  has  fought  the  most  extraordinary 
battles.  It  has  descended  so  low  as  to  rake  soldiers  in 
the  trenches,  transports  on  the  highways,  trains  on  the 
railroads,  and  even  officers  in  their  automobiles.  In- 
deed, by  bombing  manufacturing  cities  over  a  belt  of  a 
hundred  miles  along  the  Rhine  it  has  done  more  to 
break  down  the  morale  of  the  German  people  than  any 
other  factor.  Truly  this  new  engine  of  man  has  de- 
veloped, under  the  intense  necessity  of  war,  farther  in 
this  short  space  of  time  than  any  other  mechanical 
device — not  excepting  the  automobile — which  man  has 
ever  invented  or  fostered. 

But  with  all  the  wonderful  things  the  aeroplane 
has  accomplished  and  with  all  the  stupendous  advance 
it  has  made  as  a  carrier  of  man  and  his  chattels,  even 
though  it  does  travel  the  shortest  distance  between 
any  two  points  on  this  planet  with  the  greatest  speed, 
nevertheless,  much  must  yet  be  done  to  make  the 
aeroplane  a  safe,  comfortable,  popular,  and  inexpen- 
sive means  of  aerial  transportation.  Therefore,  before 
we  attempt  to  demonstrate  how  this  fastest  engine  of 


172  AIRCRAFT 

flight  can  be  made  to  do  man's  will  as  easily  and  com- 
fortably as  the  powerful  steam-engine,  the  mysterious 
electric  dynamo,  and  the  subtle  gasoline  motor,  let  us 
first  examine  in  detail  what  has  already  been  accom- 
plished in  aeroplane  transportation.  Then,  with  our 
feet  firmly  planted  on  the  ground  but  with  our  heads 
up  in  the  clouds  so  that  we  may  see  over  the  highest 
mountains,  let  us  look  down  the  corridors  of  the  ages 
and  discern  through  the  mists  of  time  some  of  the 
transportation  feats  which  this  new  invention  of  man 
will  most  certainly  perform. 

From  the  time  of  the  first  flight  of  the  Wright 
brothers  till  the  beginning  of  the  Great  War,  owing  to 
the  lack  of  commercial  incentive,  the  development  in 
aviation  was  similar  to  that  of  any  other  science  that 
involved  some  physical  dangers.  It  is  true  that  M. 
Bleriot  had  flown  across  the  English  Channel  on  July 
25,  1909;  that  Jules  Vedrines  had  been  carried  in  an 
aeroplane  from  Paris  via  Vienna,  Sofia,  and  Constanti- 
nople to  Cairo,  Egypt;  and  that  Roland  Garros  had 
flown  500  miles  across  the  Mediterranean  Sea  from 
St.  Raphael,  France,  to  Tunis,  Africa;  but  these 
facts  were  regarded  as  sporting  events  or  stunts  that 
could  not  be  regularly  performed  by  aeroplanes  with- 
out great  loss  of  life.  For  that  reason  practically  no 
commercial  interest  was  taken  hi  aviation,  and  very 
little  military — except  by  Germany,  which  was  ready 
to  seize  upon  and  develop  anything  that  would  help 
her  to  realize  Der  Tag  when  she  would  be  conqueror  of 
the  world. 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING        173 

Indeed,  few  people  outside  of  those  connected  with 
aeronautics  know  that  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why 
the  Potsdam  gang  made  the  Sarajevo  murders  a  pre- 
text for  hurling  the  whole  world  into  war  was  the  firm 
belief  that  Germany  had  at  that  time  the  complete 
supremacy  of  the  air.  She  had  constructed  a  fleet 
of  twoscore  Zeppelins,  some  measuring  710  feet  in 
length  and  being  buoyed  up  by  over  2,000,000  cubic 
feet  of  hydrogen  gas,  driven  by  six  Maybach  gas-en- 
gines, each  developing  250  horse-power,  and  carrying 
a  crew  of  forty-eight  men  and  a  useful  load  of  four 
tons. 

What  destruction  those  fleets  of  lighter-than-air  ma- 
chines wrought  upon  the  open  villages,  towns,  and  cities 
of  England,  Scotland,  France,  Belgium,  Rumania,  and 
Russia — not  to  mention  the  part  they  played  in  the 
naval  battle  of  Jutland — constitutes  another  chapter 
in  the  history  of  German  aerial  preparedness  and  sky- 
line transportation  that  is  told  in  the  chapter  on  the 
commercial  Zeppelin.  But  just  as  Germany  seized  on 
the  submarine  and  developed  it  for  polemic  purposes, 
so  she  saw  the  possibilities  of  the  aeroplane  as  a  scout, 
fighter,  and  bombing  subsidiary  to  the  Zeppelin.  With 
the  object  of  developing  the  aeronautic  branch  of  the 
service  beyond  any  other  country  the  German  Govern- 
ment gave  every  encouragement  to  aviation.  In  1914 
the  Huns  offered  the  sum  of  $55,000  to  be  awarded  for 
the  best  water-cooled  and  air-cooled  aeromotor  of 
80  to  200  horse-power.  Among  the  points  to  be 
avoided  in  its  construction  was  the  "use  of  material 


174  AIRCRAFT 

from  any  other  country  than  Germany."  Under  the 
auspices  of  the  Aerial  League  of  Germany  the  Kaiser 
also  put  up  fifty  thousand  marks  in  prizes  for  the  best 
altitude,  cross-country,  and  non-stop  records  made  by 
standardized  aeroplanes  taken  from  stock.  Subsidized 
as  the  German  aero  manufacturers  were  by  their  gov- 
ernment, it  was  not  difficult  for  their  flyers  to  carry  off 
all  the  prizes  at  this  meet,  so  that  before  the  end  of 
July,  1914,  they  had  made  the  following  new  world's 
records: 

Otto  Linnekogel  on  July  9  climbed  to  21,654  feet, 
breaking  Roland  Garros's  record  of  19,032;  on  July  14 
Heinrich  Oelrich  reached  26,246  feet;  and  Reinhold 
Boehm  flew  for  twenty-four  hours  and  two  minutes 
without  stopping  his  engine ! 

Those  who  realize  how  much  time,  money,  and  en- 
ergy have  been  expended  by  this  country  during  the 
time  we  were  in  the  war  in  getting  quantity  production 
of  aeroplanes  and  aeromotors  will  appreciate  what  it 
meant  to  Germany  in  July,  1914,  when  she  declared 
war  on  the  world,  to  have  all  her  experimentation  done 
and  her  aeronautical  factories  tuned  up  and  nearly  a 
thousand  standardized  planes  equipped  with  stand- 
ardized Benz,  Mercedes,  and  Maybach  motors  while 
England  had  barely  250  planes  of  almost  as  many 
different  types,  and  France  was  in  a  similar  condition 
with  about  300  aeroplanes  and  engines ! 

With  command  of  the  land  and  the  air  Germany  felt 
she  could  neutralize  or  overcome  Britain's  command  of 
the  sea  by  overrunning  France,  seizing  the  Channel 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING         175 

ports,  and  by  flying  over  the  British  fleet  land  an  army 
in  England  and  conquer  the  "tight  little  isle."  In- 
deed, for  three  years  after  the  first  battle  of  the  Marne 
the  fear  of  just  such  a  contingency  compelled  England 
to  keep  a  large  standing  army  at  home  while  Germany 
with  her  Zeppelins  and  aeroplanes,  even  from  distant 
Belgium,  terrorized  Scotland  and  England  with  almost 
daily  bombing  air  raids. 

But  as  soon  as  the  war  broke  out  the  governments 
of  the  world  began  to  appreciate  what  could  be  ac- 
complished by  these  little  toys  of  sportsmen,  and  to 
realize  that  the  side  which  built  and  equipped  the 
largest  and  fastest  fleet  of  scouts  and  fighters  could  put 
out  the  eyes  of  his  opponent  and  win  the  gigantic 
struggle;  for  an  army  or  a  navy  cannot  feel  its  way 
forward  like  a  worm  without  being  destroyed !  This 
precipitated  an  enormous  economic  and  manufactur- 
ing race  to  make  enough  aircraft  and  to  train  enough 
skilful  aviators  to  drive  the  enemy  from  the  air  and 
get  control  of  the  third  dimension.  The  fighting  and 
bombing  possibilities  of  the  aeroplane  were  not  then 
fully  appreciated;  that  came  afterward.  Consequently 
the  two  objectives  first  sought  in  the  actual  designing 
and  building  of  the  aeroplanes  were  manoeuvring  abil- 
ity and  speed,  and  later  bombing  capacity.  Inherent 
stability  and  sufficient  factors  of  safety,  the  two  chief 
considerations  in  peace  construction  of  aircraft,  were 
only  secondary  or  entirely  neglected. 

For  nearly  four  years  this  war  of  tools  and  this  war 
in  the  air  went  on  with  fluctuating  vicissitudes  for  Hun 


176  AIRCRAFT 

and  Ally.  First  came  the  German  scouting  and  fighting 
Fokkers  equipped  with  motors  which  owing  to  their 
superior  horse-power  made  them  faster  and  more  easy 
to  manoeuvre  than  anything  the  Allies  had  until  the 
famous  French  Baby  Nieuports  with  110  horse-power 
Le  Rhone  engines  appeared  in  1916  and  began  to 
equal  the  Boche  in  those  two  prime  requisites.  Then, 
owing  to  the  number  of  machines  shot  down  or  forced 
to  land  through  engine  trouble,  neither  side  could  long 
keep  any  secret  of  aeromotor  construction  or  aero- 
plane design  from  an  opponent.  Therefore  the  strug- 
gle for  quantity  production  began.  In  the  meantime 
the  huge  bimotored  Caudrons,  Voisins,  Breguets, 
Handley  Pages,  and  Capronis  began  to  be  built  in 
large  numbers  by  the  French,  British,  and  Italians, 
and  the  Gothas  by  the  Germans.  Each  year  saw  an 
increase  in  the  horse-power  of  the  motors  and  in  the 
size  of  the  aeroplanes;  and  still,  owing  to  the  infinite 
area  of  the  skies  to  manoeuvre  in  and  the  lack  of  large 
aerial  fleets  flying  as  a  unit,  neither  side  could  prevent 
the  scouting-machines  or  the  bombing  raiders  from 
spying  out  or  bombing  any  objective  within  a  flying 
radius  of  two  hundred  miles  of  their  aerodromes. 

With  the  advent  of  the  United  States  into  the  strug- 
gle it  became  more  and  more  apparent  to  the  German 
military  leaders  that  they  must  win  the  war  before 
the  tremendous  manufacturing  and  aviator  resources 
of  this  country  could  be  felt  on  the  West  Front.  That, 
of  course,  was  one  of  the  cardinal  reasons  for  the  series 
of  great  German  drives  beginning  with  March  21, 1918. 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING        177 

The  Allies,  too,  now  fully  realized  that  the  Great  War 
would  be  won  in  the  air,  so  they  expended  every  effort 
and  resource  to  build  aeroplanes  to  clear  the  German 
machines  from  the  skies  and  to  bomb  Germany  from 
the  air.  How  much  these  raids  behind  the  Boche 
lines  had  to  do  with  the  breaking  down  of  the  morale 
of  the  German  people  and  Teuton  soldier  cannot  yet 
be  properly  estimated.  However,  to  give  an  idea  of 
the  severity  of  this  war  in  the  air  and  destruction 
wrought  by  bombing-machines  in  Germany  we  know 
that  the  British  Independent  Air  Force  sent  out  over 
the  enemy  territory  squadrons  of  five  to  one  hundred 
aeroplanes,  which  dumped  daily,  rain  or  shine,  sixty 
to  one  hundred  tons  of  high  explosives  on  military  ob- 
jectives and  manufacturing  plants  scattered  over  a 
belt  a  hundred  miles  wide  all  along  the  Rhine  Valley. 
These  raids  penetrated  as  far  as  Essen  and  Heidelberg. 
They  destroyed  ammunition-dumps,  railroad-yards, 
chemical  and  gas  works.  By  blowing  up  railroad 
communications  with  the  rear  they  virtually  cut  the 
arteries  of  the  German  army.  Moreover,  by  their  re- 
peated excursions  into  Holland  they  disrupted  the 
sleep,  the  rest,  and  the  working  capacity  of  the  peo- 
ple in  the  manufacturing  towns  and  cities  in  southern 
Germany. 

In  the  battles  in  the  air,  too,  the  Allies  were  rapidly 
becoming  supreme.  On  October  18,  1918,  the  British 
air  force  alone  destroyed  sixty-seven  Hun  machines 
and  brought  down  fifteen  more  out  of  control,  losing 
only  fifteen  machines  themselves.  Thus  these  fliers 


178  AIRCRAFT 

blinded  the  German  artillery,  and  in  contact  patrol 
swept  the  Teuton  trenches,  bombed  their  motor  and 
rail  transports,  and  dispersed  concentrations  of  their 
troops.  Indeed,  the  only  place  to  escape  these  relent- 
less dragons  of  the  air  was  actually  under  ground. 

Meanwhile,  after  much  delay  and  many  mistakes, 
American-built  aeroplanes  were  beginning  to  appear 
in  quantity  on  the  West  Front.  Here  is  the  record  of 
what  the  Americans  accomplished  during  the  short 
time  in  which  they  had  machines:  926  German  aero- 
planes and  73  balloons  were  destroyed.  The  Amer- 
icans lost  265  aeroplanes  and  38  balloons. 

Finally,  in  October,  1918,  350  American-built  aero- 
planes in  one  single  formation  dropped  thirty-two  tons 
of  high  explosives  on  Wavrille.  When  the  armistice 
was  signed,  there  were  actually  engaged  on  the  West 
Front  740  American  aeroplanes,  744  pilots,  457  ob- 
servers, and  23  aerial  gunners.  Of  these,  329  were 
pursuit  machines,  296  observation  machines,  and  115 
were  bombers. 

How  much  damage  the  French  and  Italians  did  to 
German  aerial  supremacy  and  manufacturing  efficiency 
is  difficult  to  summarize.  It  was  very  considerable 
and,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  others,  sufficient  to 
convince  the  German  military  leaders  that  the  Allied 
production  of  aircraft  was  so  rapid  that  within  less 
than  a  year  at  most  the  Allies  would  sweep  the  Huns 
from  the  skies  and  not  even  Berlin  would  escape  the 
fate  the  Huns  had  so  often  visited  upon  London, 
Paris,  and  Bucharest.  Finally  the  plea  issued  by  the 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING         179 

German  Government  to  the  Allies,  about  a  month 
before  the  end,  to  confine  air  raids  to  within  a  fifty- 
mile  zone  of  the  fighting-line  was  a  complete  confession 
that  the  Allied  supremacy  of  the  air  was  one  of  the 
most  deciding  factors  in  causing  Germany  to  sur- 
render. 

But  though  the  primary  uses  of  the  aeroplanes  dur- 
ing the  last  four  years  were  polemic,  nevertheless,  sev- 
eral of  the  startling  new  feats  demonstrate  clearly 
what  may  be  expected  when  the  same  aircraft  manu- 
facturers design  and  construct  machines  for  the  avowed 
purpose  of  commercial  aerial  transportation.  Here 
are  only  a  few  of  the  most  startling  world's  records 
that  suggest  these  possibilities: 

On  August  29,  1917,  Captain  Marquis  Giulio  Lau- 
reati  flew  in  an  S.  I.  A.  from  Turin  to  Naples  and  re- 
turn, a  distance  of  920  miles,  establishing  a  new  non- 
stop flight  world's  record,  and  a  month  later  he  and 
his  mechanic  flew  from  Turin  to  London,  crossing  the 
Alps  at  an  altitude  of  12,000  feet  and  negotiating  a 
distance  of  656  miles  at  an  average  speed  of  89  miles 
an  hour.  The  speed,  however,  was  not  remarkable, 
for  100  miles  an  hour  is  the  average  speed  for  big  ma- 
chines, and  150  miles  was  made  by  scouting-machines 
on  the  West  Front  during  the  war.  On  April  19  Cap- 
tain E.  F.  White,  U.  S.  A.,  in  a  DH-4,  flew  from  Chi- 
cago to  New  York,  727  miles,  without  stopping,  in 
six  hours  and  fifty  minutes. 

On  April  25,  1919,  four  naval  aviators,  in  a  seaplane 
of  the  F-5  type,  Serial  No,  3589,  made  a  new  world's 


180  AIRCRAFT 

record  for  an  endurance  flight  when  they  flew,  officially, 
1,250  miles  in  twenty  hours  and  ten  minutes.  The 
record  was  made  during  a  continuous  flight  from  11.42 
A.  M.  April  25  until  7.52  A.  M.  April  26.  Throughout 
the  entire  afternoon  and  night,  and  often  bucking  a 
strong  breeze  over  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  Vir- 
ginia Capes,  the  F-5  described  a  great  circle,  extending 
northward  to  the  mouth  of  the  Potomac  River  and 
then  eastward  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  sweeping  over 
the  Capes  and  then  inland  to  the  naval  station. 

The  four  men  in  the  machine  ate  three  meals  during 
the  flight. 

The  machine  left  the  naval  base  with  850  gallons  of 
gasoline.  When  it  landed  there  was  scarcely  two  gal- 
lons in  its  tanks. 

The  F-5  is  an  improved  type  of  flying-boat  that  the 
Navy  Department  intended  using  in  patrol  duty  for 
war  purposes.  It  has  a  wing  spread  of  105  feet.  The 
machine  was  built  by  Curtiss,  and  is  known  as  a  "kite 
boat,"  equipped  with  twin  Liberty  motors. 

At  Wright  Field,  near  Dayton,  Ohio,  on  Septem- 
ber 18,  1918,  Major  R.  W.  Schroeder,  of  the  United 
States  Air  Service,  in  an  American-built  aeroplane 
driven  by  an  American-made  Hispario-Suiza  motor, 
climbed  to  a  new  world's  altitude  record  of  28,900  feet, 
only  102  feet  short  of  the  highest  peak  of  the  Himalaya 
Mountains.  In  December,  1918,  Captain  Lang  and 
Lieutenant  WUlets  claimed  to  have  ascended  to  30,500 
feet  in  a  Bristol  aeroplane,  but  the  record  has  not  been 
homologed.  On  November  19, 1918,  an  aeroplane  flew 
from  Combes  la  Villa  to  Paris  and  return,  a  distance  of 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING         181 

eighty  miles,  carrying  thirty-eight  passengers.  Two 
days  before  a  Handley  Page,  with  a  wing  spread  of  127 
feet  and  a  fuselage  measuring  sixty-five  feet,  propelled 
by  four  motors  and  piloted  by  an  American,  carried 
nine  women  and  thirty-one  men  to  a  height  of  6,000 
feet  during  an  hour's  cruise  over  London,  England. 
A  year  ago  another  type  of  this  same  machine,  but 
with  only  a  100-foot  wing  spread  and  driven  by  only 
two  275  horse-power  motors  and  carrying  five  men, 
flew  across  country  from  London  to  Constantinople, 
dropped  bombs  on  the  German  cruiser  Goeben  anchored 
there,  and  then  flew  back  to  Saloniki,  covering  a  total 
distance  of  more  than  2,000  miles  and  remaining  in  the 
air  a  total  of  thirty-one  hours.  The  flight  was  via 
Paris,  Lyons,  and  Marseilles — in  order  to  avoid  the 
Alps — and  from  there  to  Pisa,  Rome,  Naples,  and  then 
across  250  miles  of  mountainous  country,  often  at  a 
height  of  10,000  feet. 

Near  the  close  of  the  year  a  huge  triplane  Caproni, 
with  its  150-foot  wing  spread,  driven  by  three  700 
horse-power  Fiat  motors,  developing  a  total  of  2,100 
horse-power,  has  carried  seventy-eight  people  in  trial 
flights  at  the  factory ! 

A  Model  F-5  flying-boat,  with  a  wing  spread  of  only 
102  feet,  driven  by  two  Liberty  motors,  and  lifting  a 
50-foot  boat,  has  carried  12,900  pounds  over  many 
hundreds  of  miles  looking  for  German  submarines, 
and  another  flying-boat,  with  123  feet  of  wing  spread, 
carried  fifteen  officers  and  a  pilot  from  Washington, 
District  of  Columbia,  to  Newport  News,  Virginia. 

On  November  27, 1918,  a  Curtiss  NCI  carried  fifty 


182  AIRCRAFT 

people  for  a  short  flight  at  Rockaway  Beach,  New  York. 
It  was  drawn  by  three  Liberty  motors.  The  flying 
weight  of  the  machine  was  22,000  pounds,  and  the 
machine  had  a  wing  spread  of  126  feet,  and  the  NC-3 
and  NC-4,  which  flew  from  Rockaway,  New  York,  to 
Halifax,  520  miles  for  the  first  leg  of  the  transatlantic, 
weighed  28,000  pounds,  and  were  driven  by  four  Lib- 
erty motors. 

The  War  Department  on  December  23  also  an- 
nounced that  a  squadron  of  four  army  training-ma- 
chines flew  from  San  Diego,  California,  to  Mineola, 
Long  Island,  a  distance  of  4,000  miles,  in  the  actual  fly- 
ing time  of  fifty  hours. 

The  infamous  German  bimotored  pusher  Gothas, 
measuring  78  feet,  driven  by  six-cylinder  Mercedes 
260  horse-power  engines,  and  carrying  three  men  and 
five  hundred  pounds  of  explosives,  flying  by  night  from 
the  aerodromes  near  Ghent,  Belgium,  a  distance  of 
nearly  two  hundred  miles,  have  raided  London  more 
than  a  hundred  times  despite  the  opposition  of  fleets 
of  British  aeroplanes  and  seaplanes  and  thousands  of 
antiaircraft  guns. 

For  some  time  aerial  mail  has  been  carried  from  Lon- 
don to  Paris  in  two  and  a  half  hours.  Mail  is  also 
being  transported  by  air  route  regularly  between 
Washington,  Philadelphia,  and  New  York,  and  between 
Rome  and  Turin.  Mail  was  carried  through  the  air 
from  Chicago  to  New  York  in  ten  hours  and  five  min- 
utes; and  Second  Assistant  Postmaster-General  Prae- 
ger  says  the  sky-line  mail  will  be  extended  to  the  Pacific 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING         183 

coast,  and  in  the  year  1919  fully  fifty  aero  mail  routes 
will  be  in  operation. 

How  many  aeroplanes  that  might  be  used  for  peace 
purposes  were  completed  by  all  the  Allies  and  in  service 
of  some  kind  at  the  end  of  the  war  is  problematic. 
Judging  by  the  Allied  demand  that  Germany  surren- 
der 1,700  aeroplanes,  the  Allied  military  authorities 
surely  estimated  that  Germany  must  have  had  far 
more  than  that  number  in  active  service  on  the  West 
Front.  Counting  the  training-machines  necessary  to 
teach  enough  aviators  to  fly  and  the  planes  discarded 
as  unsafe  for  battle  flying,  Germany  must  have  had 
8,000  or  more  heavier-than-air  machines.  The  British 
surely  had  close  to  5,000  of  all  kinds  on  the  different 
fronts,  with  possibly  10,000  used  for  training  and 
other  purposes.  Indeed,  Britain  was  making  over 
4,000  a  month,  or  50,000  a  year,  when  the  war  ended, 
according  to  the  statement  made  by  General  Seely  in 
Parliament  in  April,  1919.  Perhaps  the  French  and 
Italians  combined  did  not  have  so  many  as  the  Ger- 
mans because  of  the  physical  limitations  on  their 
manufacturing  facilities.  The  Americans,  we  know, 
had  nearly  2,000  on  the  front  when  the  war  ended. 
A  thousand  De  Havilland  4's  had  been  delivered  up 
to  October  4,  and  more  than  6,000  training-machines 
had  also  been  constructed.  We  were  just  getting  into 
a  factory  production  of  about  1,200  a  month  when  the 
war  ended.  Indeed,  to  be  exact,  on  November  11, 
1918,  a  total  of  33,384  planes  had  been  ordered;  subse- 
quent to  that  date  19,628  ordered  were  cancelled,  and 


184  AIRCRAFT 

up  to  December  27,  1918,  a  total  of  13,241  planes  had 
been  shipped  from  United  States  factories. 

With  the  exception  of  the  training-machines  and  the 
two-seater  fighters,  like  the  De  Havilland  4's,  most  of 
these  American  machines  could  hardly  be  used  for 
anything  except  aero  mail  service.  The  large  Caproni 
and  Handley  Page  bombers  will  do  some  passenger 
carrying.  Indeed,  the  peace  planes,  unlike  the  war 
planes,  are  constructed  with  stability,  safety,  capacity 
carrying,  and  comfort  as  the  chief  factors. 

At  the  close  of  the  Great  War,  fortunately  for  the 
aeronautic  industry,  approximately  ten  billion  dollars 
has  already  been  invested  by  European,  American, 
and  Asiatic  countries  in  aeronautics.  Part  of  this  has 
been  expended  in  constructing  aircraft  factories,  aero- 
nautic engines,  aeroplanes,  dirigibles,  hangars;  in  ob- 
taining raw  materials  and  landing-fields;  in  training 
aviators  and  mechanics,  and  in  making  aeronautic  ma- 
chinery, equipment,  and  accessories.  Thousands  of 
furniture  and  piano  factories,  boat-building  shops,  and 
similar  establishments  have  been  manufacturing  pro- 
pellers, struts,  ribs,  pontoons,  flying-boats,  and  so  on; 
and  hundreds  of  automobile-makers  and  engine  manu- 
facturers have  given  over  their  plants,  or  a  goodly 
portion  of  them,  to  making  motors,  spars,  and  tools. 

Varnish,  linen,  cotton,  castor-oil,  goggles,  clothes,  and 
a  hundred  and  one  other  things  have  also  been  used 
either  in  the  direct  manufacture  of  aircraft  or  in  the 
equipment  of  the  aviators  or  mechanics,  so  that  there 
are  to-day  tens  of  thousands  of  skilled  and  unskilled 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING        185 

artisans,  aviators,  mechanics,  who  are  wondering  how 
far  the  aeronautic  engine,  with  its  remarkable  develop- 
ment from  16  horse-power,  which  the  Wright  brothers 
used,  to  the  700  horse-power  of  the  Fiat,  will  be  used 
in  commercial  aeronautics  and  how  far  the  frail  little 
Wright  glider,  which  has  grown  into  a  machine  weigh- 
ing six  tons,  can  be  made  a  profitable  means  of  aerial 
transportation. 

Moreover,  all  the  scientific  knowledge,  trained 
technic,  all  the  enormous  investments  in  fixed  prop- 
erty, and  the  tens  of  thousands  of  aircraft  built  or 
building  is  being  turned  to  commercial  purposes. 
They  were  not,  and  everything  is  being  done  to  make 
the  aeroplane  do  man's  bidding  as  easily  and  as  readily 
as  the  steamboat,  electric  car,  steam-engine,  and  auto- 
mobile. 

Even  though  the  aeroplane  does  travel  the  shortest 
route  in  the  shortest  time  between  any  two  given 
points,  before  a  sufficient  number  of  passengers  can 
be  induced  to  travel  via  the  aerial  line  to  make  it 
financially  profitable  to  the  transportation  company 
the  public  must  be  assured  that  it  is  reasonably  safe; 
that  they  can  fly  in  comfort;  and  that  the  price  is 
reasonable.  So  let  us  first  see  what  has  been  done  and 
what  is  being  done  to  satisfy  those  three  requisites. 

The  dangers  of  aeroplane  flight  have  been  grossly 
exaggerated  by  newspapers,  which  record  only  the 
unusual.  Moreover,  flying  in  the  war  zone  was  done 
under  the  most  adverse  and  dangerous  circumstances. 
Also  the  machines  were  built  for  manoeuvring  ability 


186  AIRCRAFT 

and  speed,  and  not  for  stability  and  safety  factors. 
Furthermore,  all  the  scouts  and  most  of  the  recon- 
naissance and  battle  planes  were  driven  by  only  one 
motor,  so  that  if  engine  trouble  developed  they  had  to 
volplane  to  the  ground  at  the  mercy  of  the  antiaircraft 
guns  and  the  aerial  fighters.  Finally,  they  often  had  to 
land  in  shell-scarred  terrain.  Naturally  the  casualties 
were  high.  Indeed,  the  war  in  the  air  was  meant  to  be 
as  perilous  and  dangerous  as  it  could  be. 

Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  these  hazards  it  is  remark- 
able how  many  machines,  even  when  shot  down  with 
some  vital  part  out  of  commission,  in  many  cases  fall- 
ing several  thousand  feet,  have  righted  themselves 
before  reaching  the  ground  and  made  a  safe  landing, 
due  to  the  precision  and  accuracy  of  construction  with 
regard  to  lateral  and  longitudinal  balance.  And  all 
in  all,  judging  from  the  wonderful  records  already  made 
by  aeroplanes,  even  the  single-motored  machine  is  very 
reliable. 

With  the  bimotored  plane,  of  course,  casualties  were 
not  so  high,  for  even  if  one  motor  was  put  out  of  com- 
mission the  other  could  bring  the  aviators  back  to  the 
aerodrome.  Major  Salonone,  the  Italian  ace,  on 
February  20,  1916,  flew  a  hundred  miles  back  to  his 
own  lines  with  one  of  the  motors  on  his  Caproni  shot 
out  of  commission ! 

On  the  aviation  training-fields,  owing  to  the  novices 
who  were  learning  to  fly,  the  natural  recklessness  of 
youth,  and  sometimes  the  faulty  construction  of  planes 
— hastily  built  and  often  superficially  inspected — the 
casualties  were  higher.  Stunting  too  near  the  ground 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING        187 

and  in  machines  constructed  primarily  for  straight 
flying  so  that  the  stresses  should  come  from  only  one 
flying  angle,  enemy  treachery,  and  the  absolute  neces- 
sity of  discovering  the  best  manoeuvres  and  newest 
types  of  aeroplanes  also  augmented  the  honor  roll.  But 
stunting  eliminated,  with  machines  equipped  with  two 
or  more  reliable  aeronautic  motors  built  according  to 
standardized  specifications  as  to  materials,  methods, 
stability,  and  the  required  number  of  safety  factors, 
steered  by  tried  and  true  pilots,  flying  between  regular 
landing-fields  and  aerodromes  and  directed  in  the  dark 
and  in  foggy  weather  from  the  ground  by  radiotele- 
phones, such  as  flight  commanders  used  in  giving 
instruction  to  the  members  of  the  flying  squadron,  the 
dangers  of  flying  can  be  reduced  to  proportions  com- 
mensurate with  the  desire  of  the  public  to  get  from 
place  to  place  in  the  quickest  and  safest  vehicle. 

Of  course,  the  present  high  landing  speed  of  an  aero- 
plane is  the  cause  of  many  accidents.  Thirty-five 
miles  an  hour,  except  where  the  head  resistance  is 
great,  is  the  slowest  speed  now  made  in  landing  a 
heavier-than-air  machine.  The  invention  of  a  device 
or  the  discovery  of  a  means  of  reducing  the  speed  to 
ten  miles  an  hour  when  touching  the  ground,  though 
still  only  in  the  realms  of  the  probable,  is  by  no  means 
diametrically  opposed  to  the  inherent  laws  of  the  aero- 
plane. This  accomplished,  the  danger  of  flying  in  an 
aeroplane  will  be  reduced  to  infinitesimal  proportions 
— at  least  to  a  degree  no  more  precarious  than  riding 
in  an  automobile. 

Already  the  War  Department  has  ordered  flyers  to 


188  AIRCRAFT 

map  the  country,  and  large  stretches  of  the  United 
States  have  already  been  mapped.  The  Wilson  Aerial 
Highway,  from  New  York  to  Chicago  and  San  Fran- 
cisco, has  been  laid  out.  Aerial  transportation  com- 
panies have  been  formed  to  provide  planes.  Thou- 
sands of  skilled  pilots  have  secured  jobs;  many  cham- 
bers of  commerce  have  built  landing-places  near  their 
towns  and  cities.  Needless  to  say,  aerial  laws  will  be 
passed  to  prevent  stunting  with  passengers  and  re- 
quiring machines  to  fly  at  the  altitude  necessary  to 
glide  to  the  nearest  aerodrome  in  case  a  motor  stalls. 
Already  a  dozen  different  aeronautical  motors  have 
been  developed  which  will  run  twenty-four  to  one  hun- 
dred hours  without  stopping.  Recently  the  Caproni 
biplane  at  Mineola,  Long  Island,  climbed  to  14,000  feet 
with  one  of  the  three  motors  completely  shut  off  all 
the  way. 

On  August  9  the  Italian  poet  Gabriele  d'Annunzio 
flew  from  Venice  to  Vienna  via  the  Alps  with  his  motor 
wide  open  all  the  way.  Indeed,  thousands  of  equally 
sensational  flights  have  been  made,  in  all  kinds  of 
weather  and  under  the  most  adverse  circumstances  of 
a  great  war.  Of  the  hundred-odd  air  raids  on  London 
by  the  Gothas  some  were  conducted  in  broad  daylight, 
when  the  Germans  had  to  fly  through  squadrons  of 
British  scouts  and  fighters,  through  or  over  three  bar- 
rages in  order  to  get  to  the  metropolis;  and  yet  sel- 
dom more  than  one  or  two  Hun  machines  out  of  the 
thirty  usually  constituting  the  squadron  were  forced 
to  land  or  were  shot  down.  The  same  thing  was  true 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING        189 

of  the  British  Independent  Air  Force  in  the  raids  they 
made  over  the  German  cities,  citadels,  factories,  am- 
munition-dumps, and  other  military  objectives,  though 
they  often  flew  in  fleets  of  fifty  to  a  hundred. 

Of  the  350  machines  constituting  the  American  air 
raid  on  Wavrille  in  October,  1918,  only  one  aeroplane 
failed  to  return,  though  twelve  Hun  machines  were 
shot  down.  The  German  flying-tank  which  shot  down 
Major  Lufbery,  the  most  famous  American  ace,  was 
driven  by  five  engines,  which  were  protected,  as  well 
as  the  fuselage,  with  bullet-proof  steel  three-eighths  of 
an  inch  thick.  Major  Lufbery  emptied  his  machine- 
gun  against  this  aerial  monster  from  close  range  and 
from  many  angles  before  his  gas-tank  was  pierced  and 
his  machine  went  down  in  flames.  Therefore  a  bi- 
motored  machine,  flying  under  peace  conditions,  should 
be  able  to  make  its  aerodrome  safely  nearly  every  time. 

There  were  three  discomforts  of  air  travel — the 
cold,  the  noise  of  the  motor,  and  the  lack  of  room  in 
moving  about.  Electrically  heated  clothes  eliminate 
the  cold;  ariophones,  which  shut  out  the  noise  of  the 
motor  but  permit  the  passengers  or  aviators  to  con- 
verse together,  are  hi  universal  use  on  aeroplanes. 
With  the  increase  in  the  size  of  the  aeroplanes  and  the 
number  of  motors,  the  nacelles  and  the  enclosed  roomy 
cabins  can  be  constructed  as  they  were  on  the  famous 
Sykorsky  aerobus,  which  was  built  in  Russia  before 
the  war.  This  aeroplane  carried  twenty-one  people  to 
an  altitude  of  7,000  feet.  On  this  trip  they  had  ample 
room  to  move  about  and  to  observe  the  sky  and  the 


190  AIRCRAFT 

landscape.  On  Thanksgiving  Day,  1917,  a  half-dozen 
guests  of  an  American  aircraft  factory  had  their  turkey 
dinner  served  in  a  huge  aeroplane  above  the  clouds. 

The  Handley  Page  and  Farman  aerial  transport 
busses  now  flying  between  London  and  Paris  carry  the 
passengers  entirely  housed  in. 

It  is  true  that  owing  to  the  cost  of  the  aeroplanes 
and  the  aeromotors,  their  upkeep  and  the  number  of 
skilled  men  required  to  fly  and  maintain  them,  all 
aerial  travel  is  expensive.  The  two-seater  training- 
machines,  equipped  with  one  motor,  cost  five  to  seven 
thousand  dollars,  and  the  huge  bimotored  bombing- 
machines  averaged  forty  to  sixty  thousand  dollars. 
This  price  was  due  to  the  necessity  for  hurried  con- 
struction. For  everything  that  went  into  the  building 
of  the  aeromotor  and  the  machine  itself  and  also  for 
the  labor  the  very  highest  price  had  to  be  paid.  Tools, 
machinery,  factories,  fields,  hangars,  and  a  thousand 
other  things  had  to  be  purchased,  and  a  great  body  of 
skilled  workmen  had  to  be  trained  before  aircraft  could 
be  turned  out  in  quantity. 

Now  all  this  skill  and  billions  of  money  have  been 
invested  in  the  industry  so  that  the  plants  in  this  coun- 
try have  the  capacity  to  manufacture  nearly  two  hun- 
dred a  day.  With  this  nucleus  to  start  a  peace-con- 
struction programme  the  price  of  even  the  biggest  ma- 
chines must  soon  shrink  to  that  of  a  high-priced  auto- 
mobile or  private  yacht.  Plenty  of  sporting  machines 
with  a  small  wing  spread  and  a  two-cylinder  motor 
that  will  sell  for  five  hundred  dollars  are  now  being 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING        191 

made;  and  since  these  machines  can  average  twenty- 
two  miles  on  a  gallon  of  gasoline  the  expense  of  main- 
taining one  of  these  will  not  be  out  of  the  means  of 
hundreds  of  the  young  flyers  who  have  returned  from 
flying  on  the  West  Front.  Moreover,  since  there  will 
be  no  maintenance  of  roads,  rails,  live  wires,  and  so  on, 
such  as  there  is  in  the  railroad  and  electric  road  indus- 
tries, the  cost  of  aero  maintenance  is  infinitely  smaller, 
so  that  aerial  travel  may  become  cheaper  than  any 
other  known  to  man. 

Fundamentally,  the  hydroaeroplane  is  the  same  as 
the  aeroplane  except  that  pontoons  instead  of  wheels 
are  used  to  land  upon.  The  cost  of  these  airships  over 
the  land  machines  is  noticeable  only  where  boats  are 
used  instead  of  pontoons.  Consequently,  their  price 
above  the  aeroplane  will  depend  on  the  size  and  the 
kind  of  furnishings  used  in  the  boat.  Owing  to  the 
fact  that  no  landing-field  has  to  be  bought  and  main- 
tained and  that  the  flying-boat  can  come  down  on  a 
river  or  a  lake  with  comparative  ease,  and  also  the  fact 
that  altitude  does  not  have  to  be  maintained  in  order 
to  glide  to  an  aerodrome  or  a  safe  landing-field,  this 
type  of  aerial  navigation  bids  fair  to  be  fast,  cheap, 
and  absolutely  safe.  Moreover,  the  size  and  passenger- 
carrying  capacity  of  these  flying-boats  will  be  limited 
only  by  the  construction  of  wings  strong  enough  to 
maintain  them  in  the  air,  for  the  size  of  the  hulls  and 
the  number  of  motors  can  be  increased  indefinitely, 

Perhaps  the  best  indication  of  what  we  may  expect 
of  the  aeroplane  as  a  commercial  carrier  is  embodied 


192  AIRCRAFT 

in  the  present  plans  of  the  manufacturers  of  aircraft. 
Using  the  past  history  of  the  heavier-than-air  machines' 
performance  and  their  own  experience  and  the  experi- 
ence of  tens  of  thousands  of  flyers  under  all  imaginable 
circumstances  and  conditions  as  a  basis,  they  are  build- 
ing various  types  of  aircraft.  More  than  a  score  of 
American  and  British  firms  have  already  built  and 
are  putting  upon  the  market  large  numbers  of  sports 
models.  These  machines  are  single  and  double  seaters 
after  the  type  of  the  famous  Baby  Nieuports,  Spads, 
and  British  Sopwith  Pups.  They  have  a  wing  spread 
of  anywhere  from  seventeen  to  thirty  feet.  The  fusel- 
age measures  between  ten  and  twenty  feet.  Some  are 
equipped  with  one  small  motor  generating  from  twenty 
horse-power  up  to  ninety  horse-power.  Most  of  these 
motors  are  upright,  like  the  ones  used  on  motorcycles, 
and  range  from  two  to  four  cylinders.  The  whole  ma- 
chine will  not  weigh  more  than  five  hundred  pounds 
and  these  models  are  able  to  fly  at  eighty  to  one  hundred 
miles  an  hour  and  make  an  average  of  twenty  miles  or 
more  on  a  gallon  of  gas.  The  price  of  these  will  depend 
on  the  demand,  but  most  manufacturers  believe  they 
will  sell  for  five  hundred  to  a  thousand  dollars.  These 
machines  are  so  small  that  they  can  be  landed  on  any 
road  or  field.  Besides,  the  small  amount  of  space  they 
occupy  will  make  it  possible  to  house  them  inexpen- 
sively, and  they  can  be  used  for  any  kind  of  cross- 
country flying  or  sporting  purposes. 

The  second  type  of  the  sports  model  has  a  wing 
spread  of  twenty-six  to  thirty-eight  feet.    These  wings 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING        193 

can  be  folded  back  so  that  the  aeroplane  can  be  housed 
in  a  hangar  ten  by  thirty  feet  with  ample  room  for  the 
owner  to  work  indoors  on  the  machine.  The  fuselage 
is  proportionately  larger  than  that  on  the  smaller  ma- 
chine. This  aeroplane  is  equipped  with  a  four-cylinder 
upright  motor  or  an  air-cooled  rotary  motor  of  the 
Gnome  style  with  nine  or  eleven  cylinders,  generating 
up  to  ninety  horse-power.  Some  also  have  two  small 
twenty  horse-power  engines  geared  to  the  one  propeller 
so  they  can  be  throttled  down,  or  in  case  one  stalls  the 
other  can  take  the  flyers  to  their  aerodrome  without 
being  forced  to  land.  Some  models  have  two  motors 
on  the  smaller  machines.  These  aircraft  will  sell  for 
about  the  price  of  a  medium-cost  automobile. 

The  two-passenger  models  are  similar  in  design  to 
the  army  training-machines.  They  have  more  power- 
ful upright  and  V-type  four  or  eight  cylinder  motors 
and  generate  two  to  three  hundred  horse-power.  The 
fuselage  is  built  so  that  the  pilot  sits  in  front  of  or 
beside  the  passenger.  The  control  is  dual.  The  ma- 
chines are  mostly  tractors,  but  in  a  few  cases  the  nacelle 
is  built  in  front  of  the  plane  like  a  bomber,  and  the 
propeller  and  engine  are  behind.  These  pusher  types 
obviate  all  the  blind  angles  and  afford  an  excellent  un- 
obstructed range  of  vision.  They  are  especially  good 
for  hunters,  who  desire  no  obstruction  in  gunning  for 
birds.  In  case  of  a  crash,  however,  there  is  the  added 
danger  of  having  the  motor  crush  the  passengers  un- 
derneath. The  Canadian  Government  has  sold  over 
ten  thousand  of  their  training-machines  to  an  Amer- 


194  AIRCRAFT 

ican  company,  which  is  reselling  them  at  a  low  price  to 
men  who  wish  to  own  an  aeroplane. 

The  aero-mail  type  is  about  the  same  as  the  two- 
passenger  model  in  wing  spread  and  fuselage,  but  the 
motor  is  a  twelve-cylinder  V  type  and  generates  any- 
where from  250  to  450  horse-power.  Cost  is  not  so 
much  a  consideration  here  as  carrying  capacity.  Most 
of  the  two-seated  fighting-machines  built  for  war  pur- 
poses can  be  adapted  by  the  Post-Office  Department 
for  this  purpose,  and  plans  are  afoot  to  extend  the 
service  all  over  the  United  States. 

The  big  bombing  bus  type  is  designed  for  carrying 
great  numbers  of  people  from  one  aerodrome  to  an- 
other. These  machines  are  biplanes  and  triplanes  with 
a  wing  spread  of  anywhere  from  48  to  150  feet.  They 
are  driven  by  V-type,  twelve-cylinder  engines  gener- 
ating 400  to  700  horse-power.  They  have  one  or  two 
fuselages  in  the  centre  but  the  nacelles  are  usually  for- 
ward of  the  wings,  so  that  nothing  obstructs  the  vision 
of  the  passengers.  These  machines  will  be  sold  to 
transportation  companies,  which  will  make  a  business 
of  carrying  people  from  aerodrome  to  aerodrome.  They 
are  so  large  and  are  equipped  with  so  many  motors 
that  they  are  not  intended  to  be  landed  anywhere 
except  on  properly  prescribed  flying-fields.  Several 
transportation  companies  are  already  organized  for 
that  purpose. 

All  the  above  types  of  aircraft  are  so  designed  that 
pontoons  or  flying-boats  can  be  substituted  for  wheels 
and  landing-gear,  and  so  that  most  aircraft  manufac- 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING         195 

turers  can  make  both.  Of  course,  in  most  cases  the 
boats  and  the  motors  are  made  by  different  manufac- 
turers. Several  companies,  however,  construct  aero- 
planes complete  with  motors. 

Naturally  no  manufacturing  industry  can  exist 
without  a  potential  market.  Aircraft  manufacturers 
are  sure  the  majority  of  the  twenty  thousand  flyers  and 
hundred  thousand  aero  mechanics  who  have  learned 
their  trade  in  the  Great  War  will  want  to  fly  either 
machines  of  their  own  or  of  somebody  else  or  of 
some  transaerial  company.  The  aeronautical  engineers 
have,  therefore,  designed  the  sports  type  for  the  young 
fellows  who  wish  to  race  in  the  air,  travel  from  country 
town  to  country  town,  from  lake  to  river,  or  to  commute 
from  country  to  city.  Since  these  machines  fly  faster 
than  the  fastest  bird  or  the  fleetest  animal,  they  will 
afford  great  sport  for  gunners.  Indeed,  the  machines 
have  already  been  used  with  such  disastrous  effects 
upon  the  bird  that  many  hunters  say  it  is  not  good 
sportsmanship  to  hunt  from  them.  In  that  case,  per- 
haps, the  farmers  will  hire  the  daring  young  aviators 
to  hunt  down  the  crows  and  hawks  with  these  dragons 
of  the  air. 

Be  that  as  it  may,  this  sports  type  is  a  great  con- 
venience for  a  person  who  works  in  a  city  located  on  a 
large  lake  or  on  a  river  and  who  wishes  to  live  far  in 
the  country.  Indeed,  he  may  live  a  hundred  miles  up 
or  down  that  body  of  water  and  in  less  than  an  hour 
he  can  fly  to  or  from  his  work.  If  it  is  cold  he  can  put 
on  his  electrically  heated  clothing  and  keep  as  warm 


196  AIRCRAFT 

as  in  a  limousine.  If  he  has  engine  trouble  he  can  land 
anywhere  and  fix  his  machine  and  then  fly  on.  Since 
air  resistance  is  much  less  than  road  resistance  he  can 
traverse  the  distance  much  cheaper  than  in  an  inex- 
pensive automobile.  If  there  is  no  body  of  water  near 
his  place  of  business  he  can  land  his  cross-country 
flier  in  the  park  or  flying-field  just  as  easily  as  on  the 
water.  This  same  machine  will  lend  itself  to  all  kinds 
of  pleasure  flying,  and  no  other  sport  gives  so  much 
exhilaration,  scenic  view,  and  adventuresome  excite- 
ment as  the  aeroplane;  and  the  price  will  be  within  the 
means  of  many  young  men. 

The  two-passenger  models  are  being  sold  to  persons 
of  means  who  have  flown  or  wish  to  fly  and  take  up 
friends.  After  a  few  years  the  manufacturers  expect 
there  will  be  a  considerable  body  of  these  enthusiasts. 
The  greatest  sale  of  these  machines,  however,  will  be 
to  the  government  for  the  aero  mail  service.  At  first 
two  machines  will  be  necessary  for  every  flier  in 
that  service,  and  one  in  every  aerodrome  for  every  one 
in  the  air,  so  with  fifty  established  routes  we  shall 
require  several  hundred  machines.  Moreover,  the 
manufacturers  expect  that  these  machines  fitted  with 
either  a  fuselage  or  a  boat  will  be  employed  very  ex- 
tensively by  mining  companies  for  carrying  precious 
metals  in  South  America  and  Alaska.  At  the  present 
time  llamas  are  used  to  carry  copper  down  from  the 
Andes.  They  are  so  slow  and  have  to  descend  to  the 
smelters  by  such  devious  routes  that  valuable  time  is 
lost  in  the  transportation.  By  loading  the  ore  into  the 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING        197 

hold  of  a  flying-boat,  which  can  land  on  the  lakes  and 
ponds  in  case  of  engine  trouble,  the  time  will  be  so 
materially  diminished  as  to  reduce  the  cost  of  the 
metal  very  considerably.  Besides,  flying  in  a  straight 
line  as  the  bird  flies,  at  a  speed  of  not  less  than  a  hun- 
dred miles  an  hour,  will  expedite  the  work  of  the  en- 
gineer and  the  surveyor  over  the  jungles  and  unex- 
plored and  inaccessible  portions  of  South  America  and 
Africa,  as  well  as  in  other  distant  countries. 

The  conditions  in  Alaska  are  analogous,  though  the 
climate  is  different.  Dogs  and  sleds  are  now  used,  and 
they,  too,  have  to  travel  roundabout  routes  from  mine 
to  town.  Of  course,  an  aeroplane  fitted  with  skids  or 
runners  can  be  landed  on  snow  or  ice  as  easily  as  on 
land.  It  now  takes  two  days  to  sled  gold  down  from 
one  mine  in  the  Yukon  to  Nome,  which  could  be 
brought  out  in  three  hours  by  aeroplanes  flying  over 
the  tops  of  the  mountains. 

At  the  time  this  goes  to  press  Captain  Robert  Bart- 
lett  is  so  convinced  of  the  feasibility  of  flying  in  the 
arctic  regions  that  he  plans  to  tiy  to  fly  across  the 
north  pole  in  an  aeroplane.  During  the  summer 
months  there  are  plenty  of  open  spaces  on  which  sea- 
planes can  land  in  the  arctic  regions,  and  flying  at  100 
miles  an  hour,  it  would  not  take  many  hours  to  cross 
the  ice-bound  region  of  the  pole  itself. 

Already  on  the  plains  of  the  West  and  Southwest 
this  type  of  aeroplane  has  been  found  to  be  more  ser- 
viceable than  the  horse  in  discovering  the  whereabouts 
of  lost  cattle  or  sheep,  because  of  the  range  of  vision  it 


198  AIRCRAFT 

gives  to  the  shepherd  or  cowboy  and  because  of  its 
speed  and  the  short  distance  it  covers  in  reaching  its 
objective. 

The  big  bombing  bus  type  is  being  built  primarily 
for  companies  or  clubs  intending  to  carry  passengers 
from  city  to  city  or  for  cruises  from  the  club-houses. 

General  Menoher,  director  of  military  aeronautics, 
has  announced  that  the  army  will  co-operate  with  the 
aero  mail  department  in  developing  municipal  aero- 
dromes in  thirty-two  different  cities  in  the  United 
States,  extending  from  coast  to  coast  and  from  Canada 
to  Mexico. 

Meantime  the  aircraft  manufacturers  are  contem- 
plating establishing  a  line  of  huge  flying-boats  between 
New  York  and  Boston,  carrying  fifty  people  each  way. 
The  distance  of  two  hundred  miles  could  be  covered 
hi  two  hours,  or  less  than  half  the  time  taken  by  train. 
Only  four  machines  will  be  used  at  the  beginning,  one 
leaving  Boston  early  in  the  morning  and  the  other 
early  in  the  afternoon.  Two  will  leave  New  York  at 
the  same  time.  Four  more  will  be  kept  in  reserve,  and 
as  the  traffic  increases  more  will  be  added.  The  total 
investment  will  not  require  a  million  dollars,  and  the 
aero  mail  between  the  two  cities  has  already  set  the 
pace  for  this  passenger  line. 

The  manufacturers  also  expect  that  every  life-saving 
station  along  the  entire  coast  of  the  United  States  and 
its  possessions  will  be  equipped  with  at  least  one  sea- 
plane with  which  to  carry  out  a  life-line  to  a  ship 
wrecked  on  the  beach  or  to  rescue  any  one  in  distress 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING        199 

within  a  hundred  miles  of  the  station,  because  these 
flying-boats  can  be  launched  in  any  kind  of  weather 
and  can  travel  faster  than  anything  that  moves  on 
the  water. 

The  keenest  aeronautic  interest  at  the  present  time 
is  centred  in  the  aerial  crossing  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
between  America  and  Europe.  Two  possible  routes 
are  proposed  for  the  flight.  Both  start  from  St.  John's, 
Newfoundland,  but  one  stretches  from  there  to  Ireland 
and  the  other  via  the  Azores  to  Portugal.  The  north- 
ern route  is  1,860  miles  from  land  to  land,  and  the 
other  1,195  miles  to  the  Flores,  which  is  the  nearest 
one  of  the  Azores.  From  there  to  Ponta  Delgada  to 
Lisbon  is  850  more.  The  southern  route  is  preferable 
because  the  first  leg  is  shortest  from  land  to  land.  Also, 
less  fog  prevails  in  the  south  in  all  seasons  of  the  year. 
Captain  Laureati  has  already  flown  in  a  single-motored 
machine  920  miles  without  landing.  The  United 
States  Naval  F-5  flying-boat  has  flown  1,250  miles. 
Undoubtedly  a  flying-boat,  equipped  with  four  or 
more  motors,  could  carry  enough  gasoline  to  cover  the 
1,200  miles  on  the  Atlantic  without  stopping.  Indeed, 
only  half  the  number  of  motors  need  be  running  at 
one  time  if  necessary,  and  since  the  large  bimotored 
machines  make  a  hundred  miles  an  hour  the  flight 
could  be  negotiated  within  the  twelve  hours  of  day- 
light in  the  summer-time. 

Just  before  the  war  broke  out  Mr.  Glenn  Curtiss, 
the  inventor  of  the  flying-boat,  was  building  for  Mr. 
Rodman  Wanamaker  the  seaplane  America  with  which 


200  AIRCRAFT 

Captain  Porte  was  to  try  to  fly  across  the  Atlantic. 
The  beginnings  of  hostilities  terminated  the  project. 
The  Americdj  however,  did  cross  the  Atlantic,  but  in 
the  hold  of  another  boat,  and  it  performed  very  good 
service  in  British  waters  chasing  Hun  submarines. 

During  the  four  years  that  have  elapsed  since  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Great  War  the  construction  of  aero- 
nautic motors,  aeroplanes,  and  the  science  of  avia- 
tion have  advanced  at  least  a  quarter  of  a  century, 
so  that  if  the  proposition  was  feasible  before  the  war 
it  ought  certainly  to  be  very  practicable  to-day,  as 
many  authorities  have  testified.  The  Daily  Mail 
prize  of  $50,000  is  still  beckoning  to  the  adventur- 
ous spirit.  The  Martinsyde  two-seater  land-machine 
and  the  two-seater  Sopwith  have  already  established 
themselves  at  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  to  begin  the 
flight  to  Ireland.  The  United  States  Navy  NC-1, 
NC-3,  and  NC-4  have  flown  from  Rockaway  by  the 
southern  route  to  the  Azores.  Once  the  first  flight  is 
negotiated,  the  aircraft  manufacturers  are  convinced 
there  will  be  a  greater  demand  for  flying  seaplanes 
than  for  ocean  liners,  for  they  feel  sure  that  most  of 
the  people  going  to  and  coming  from  Europe  would 
prefer  to  travel  in  that  way,  and  in  less  than  half  the 
time  now  taken  by  the  fastest  ocean  greyhounds. 

In  conclusion,  then,  it  may  be  safely  laid  down  as 
an  axiom  that  the  conveyance  which  reduces  man's 
time  in  travelling  from  one  place  on  this  globe  to  an- 
other will  sooner  or  later  be  adopted  by  him.  No  mat- 
ter what  the  discomforts  or  the  dangers  or  the  expense 


COMMERCIAL    FLYING        201 

may  be  in  the  beginning,  he  will  eventually  find  a  way 
to  change  the  inconvenience  into  the  greatest  luxuries, 
the  expense  will  be  reduced  to  within  the  means  of  all, 
and  the  dangers  will  be  diminished  to  infinitesimal 
proportions.  It  was  so  in  the  beginning,  it  is  so  now, 
and  it  will  be  so  till  the  end  of  recorded  time.  It  was 
so  with  the  recalcitrant  camel,  the  ponderous  elephant, 
the  wild  horse.  It  was  thus  that  man  transformed  the 
floating  log,  which  he  propelled  with  his  feet,  into  a 
floating  palace,  driven  thousands  of  miles  across  the 
greatest  of  oceans.  Likewise  he  metamorphosed  the 
puny  stationary  steam-engine  into  a  demon  that  is 
more  powerful  than  a  thousand  horses,  and  that  rushes 
him  across  the  broad  spaces  of  the  earth  faster  than 
the  fastest  deer. 

Indeed,  with  the  aeroplane,  man  has  already  done 
what  was  considered  for  countless  ages  as  the  acme 
of  the  impossible — he  has  learned  to  fly;  and  in  the 
short  space  of  a  decade  and  a  half  he  has  flown  faster, 
farther,  and  he  has  performed  more  convolutions  than 
the  noblest  birds  of  prey— yes,  it  may  safely  be  said 
that  he  has  made  the  once  marvellous  imaginary  flight 
of  the  magic  carpet  of  the  Arabian  Nights — when 
compared  with  the  aerial  exploits  of  the  fliers  in  the 
Great  War — fade  into  the  most  diminutive  insignif- 
icance and  the  tamest  fiction. 

Before  long  then  we  may  reasonably  expect  that  all 
the  capitals  of  the  world  will  be  connected  by  air  lines. 
Already  regular  landing-places  have  been  established 
from  London  via  Paris,  Rome,  and  Constantinople  to 


202  AIRCRAFT 

Bagdad  and  Cairo.  Peking  and  Tokio  will  next  be 
added.  The  flight  from  London  to  New  York  will  also 
soon  be  an  accomplished  fact.  Then  all  the  capitals  of 
Central  and  South  America  will  be  joined  up.  The 
distance  from  South  America  to  Africa  is  about  the 
same  as  that  between  America  and  Europe.  By  reduc- 
ing the  time  of  travel  between  all  those  places  to  hours 
the  aeroplane  will  make  mountains  dwindle  into  ant- 
hills, rivers  to  creeks,  lakes  to  mud-holes,  and  oceans 
and  seas  to  ponds.  The  globe  will  be  aerially  circum- 
navigated. Tokio  and  Peking  will  be  as  accessible  to 
New  York  as  London  now  is,  and  vice  versa.  Then 
there  will  be  no  east  or  west  and  with  the  new  aerial 
age  will  come  a  new  internationalism  founded  on  speedy 
intercommunication  and  good-will  toward  all  man- 
kind. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN 

THE  AMBITION  OP  THE  AGES  REALIZED — A  GIANT  GER- 
MAN DIRIGIBLE — ZEPPELIN  ACCOMPLISHMENTS — 
HIGH  COST  OF  ZEPPELINS — SAFETY  OF  TRAVEL — 
SOME  BRITISH  PREDICTIONS — THE  FUTURE  OF  HE- 
LIUM— THE  LIFE-BLOOD  OF  COMMERCE 

ALMOST  daily  during  the  winter  of  1918-1919  reports 
were  coming  out  of  Europe  to  the  effect  that  Zeppelins 
were  being  converted  into  aerial  merchantmen  to  fly 
regularly  between  New  York  and  Hamburg. 

Because  these  gigantic  lighter-than-air  machines, 
measuring  more  than  700  feet  in  length,  70  feet  in 
diameter,  buoyed  up  by  more  than  2,000,000  cubic 
feet  of  hydrogen  gas,  and  driven  by  six  Maybach- 
Mercedes  engines,  generating  a  total  of  1,400  horse- 
power, had  carried,  in  all  kinds  of  weather  and  under 
adverse  circumstances  of  war,  a  crew  of  forty-eight 
men  and  a  useful  load  of  four  tons  from  Germany  over 
the  British  fleet  and  the  North  Sea  and  the  anti- 
aircraft guns  and  by  hostile  fleets  of  Allied  aeroplanes, 
and  had  successfully  raided  England  and  Scotland 
more  than  a  score  of  times,  returning  safely  to  their 
home  ports,  often  having  flown  a  total  distance  of  ap- 
proximately 800  miles — the  eyes  of  the  aeronautical 
world,  like  search-lights  in  the  night,  were  sweeping 

203 


204  AIRCRAFT 

the  heavens  over  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  discover 
whether  these  leviathans  of  the  air  or  the  little  dragon- 
flies  of  aeroplanes  were  to  be  the  first  to  appear  in  the 
firmament,  aerially  transnavigating  the  1,195  miles  of 
water  that  separates  the  Old  World  from  the  New. 

Indeed,  ever  since  man  has  learned  to  fly  he  has 
become  such  an  exalted  creature  that  he  has  ceased 
to  regard  any  mechanical  feat  as  impossible.  This  is, 
in  a  measure  at  least,  pardonable  when  we  stop  to 
consider  that  ever  since  man  got  up  off  his  hands  and 
learned  to  walk  upright  he  has  longed  to  be  able  to  fly 
as  a  bird  through  the  heavens  in  any  direction  he 
chose,  without  let  or  hindrance,  boundary  or  border. 
Though  he  expended  every  effort  to  accomplish  this 
feat,  and  often  lost  his  life  in  the  attempt,  for  count- 
less ages  the  privilege  to  soar  aloft  was  denied  him. 

In  point  of  time  it  was,  as  we  have  seen,  September, 
1783,  before  the  Montgolfier  brothers  succeeded  in 
sending  up  even  a  paper  bag  inflated  with  hot  air, 
and  it  was  November  of  the  same  year  before  two 
Frenchmen,  the  Marquis  d'Arlandes  and  Pilatre  de 
Roziers,  made  the  world's  first  trip  in  any  kind  of  aerial 
vehicle — namely,  a  free  balloon. 

But  these  and  most  of  the  attempts  to  navigate  the 
air  in  the  next  century  were  unsuccessful,  primarily 
due  to  the  lack  of  power  adaptable  to  propelling  a  gas- 
bag through  the  air.  In  1852  Henri  Gifford,  another 
Frenchman,  made  the  first  successful  directed  flight 
in  a  dirigible  143  feet  long  and  39  feet  in  diameter. 
It  was  inflated  with  hydrogen  and  driven  by  a  three- 


THE   COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN    205 

horse-power  steam-engine,  an  eleven-foot  screw  pro- 
peller, and  it  made  six  miles  an  hour  relative  to  the 
wind.  Owing  to  the  fuel,  fire,  and  weight  problems  the 
steam-engine  was  then  impractical  as  a  means  of  pro- 
pulsion for  lighter-than-air  machines. 

In  1884  Captain  Charles  Renard  went  a  step  far- 
ther hi  the  right  direction  by  installing  a  200-pound 
electric  motor,  generating  nine  horse-power.  The  bat- 
tery, composed  of  chlorochromic  salts,  delivered  one 
shaft  horse-power  for  each  eighty-eight  pounds  of 
weight,  but  in  spite  of  such  a  handicap  he  flew  over 
Paris  at  fourteen  and  a  half  miles  an  hour.  Neverthe- 
less, the  electric  motor  was  also  impractical,  even  for  a 
rigid  dirigible.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  every  gas-bag  was 
at  the  mercy  of  the  winds,  and  could  not  steer  a  direct 
course,  until  the  gasoline  motor  was  invented  and  de- 
veloped to  generate  more  than  a  dozen  horse-power. 

The  first  man  to  build  a  rigid  dirigible  with  an 
aluminum  framework  and  drive  it  with  a  gasoline 
motor  was  an  Austrian  named  Schwartz,  but  the  first 
man  to  build,  equip,  and  perform  the  necessary  evolu- 
tions with  a  rigid  dirigible  was  Santos-Dumont,  the 
famous  Brazilian.  He  accomplished  this  feat  in  Sep- 
tember, 1898,  when  he  set  out  from  the  Zoological 
Gardens  at  Paris  and  in  the  face  of  a  gentle  wind 
steered  his  airship  in  nearly  every  point  of  the  com- 
pass. In  1901  he  circumnavigated  the  Eiffel  Tower, 
thus  demonstrating  the  feasibility  of  the  lighter-than- 
air  ship  as  a  practical  means  of  locomotion  through  the 
air. 


206  AIRCRAFT 

~7 

The  world's  first  successful  flight  in  a  man-carrying 
heavier-than-air  machine,  made  by  the  Wright  broth- 
ers two  years  later  at  Kitty  Hawk,  North  Carolina, 
only  went  further  to  confirm  man's  belief  that  the  con- 
quest of  the  air  and  the  age  of  aerial  navigation  were  at 
hand. 

Since  then  in  a  heavier-than-air  machine  man  has 
climbed  to  30,500  feet  and  has  flown  920  miles  without 
stopping.  In  a  free  balloon  man  has  drifted  1,503 
miles  through  the  air — from  Paris  to  Kharkoff,  Russia 
— and  to  an  altitude  of  over  38,000  feet.  In  a  rigid 
dirigible  the  Germans  have  transported  machinery  for 
making  munitions  all  the  way  from  Austria-Hungary 
over  Bulgaria — while  that  country  was  still  neutral — 
to  Constantinople,  a  distance  of  500  miles;  within  a 
radius  of  350  miles  of  Germany,  despite  all  military 
and  naval  opposition  on  land  and  sea,  the  Huns  have 
flown  with  tons  of  high  explosives  and  dropped  them 
on  London,  Paris,  and  Bucharest.  In  the  last  days  of 
the  war  a  super-Zeppelin  flew  from  Jamboli,  in  Bul- 
garia, to  Khartum,  in  Egypt,  and  back,  a  distance  of 
more  than  6,000  miles  each  way,  carrying  a  crew  of 
twenty-two  men  and  twenty-five  tons  of  medicine  and 
munitions.  It  was  intended  to  transport  the  supplies 
to  General  Lettow-Vorbeck  in  German  East  Africa, 
but  a  wireless  received  when  the  Zeppelin  was  over 
Khartum  notified  its  commander  to  return,  for  Lettow- 
Vorbeck  had  been  captured. 

On  March  22, 1919,  the  British  Government  officially 
announced  that  the  US-11,  a  non-rigid  type  of  dirigi- 


THE   COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN    207 

ble,  had  flown  1,285  miles  over  the  North  Sea  without 
stopping,  the  actual  flying  time  being  forty  and  a  half 
hours.  The  voyage  took  the  form  of  a  circuit,  em- 
bracing the  coast  of  Denmark,  Schleswig-Holstein. 
Heligoland,  North  Germany,  and  Holland. 

The  trip  was  characterized  by  extremely  unfavor- 
able weather,  and  therefore  is  regarded  as  ranking  as 
perhaps  the  most  notable  flight  of  the  kind  ever  under- 
taken. The  airship  started  from  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
laying  a  straight  course  toward  Denmark.  There  was 
a  northwest  wind  of  fifteen  to  twenty  miles  an  hour, 
and  the  night  was  dark,  but  the  airship  was  only  a 
mile  from  her  course  when  she  passed  the  Dogger 
Bank  Lighthouse.  After  passing  the  lighthouse  the 
velocity  of  the  wind  increased,  and  calcium  flares  were 
dropped  into  the  sea  frequently  to  determine  the  loca- 
tion. 

The  airship 's  troubles  began  on  the  return  journey. 
The  wind  became  stronger  and  more  tempestuous. 
At  midnight  one  engine  became  useless  and  the  ship 
was  forced  a  considerable  distance  to  leeward. 

The  captain  contemplated  landing  in  France,  but 
finally  decided  to  hold  on  in  the  hope  that  the  wind 
would  abate.  The  wind  abating  somewhat,  a  "land 
fall"  was  made  at  North  Forel.  At  this  time  the  gaso- 
line supply  was  running  low. 

In  two  radically  different  types  of  flying-machines 
man  has  in  the  last  decade  aerially  transnavigated 
great  natural  and  geographic  barriers  in  the  form  of 
the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Taurus  Mountains, 


208  AIRCRAFT 

and  the  North,  the  Baltic,  the  Adriatic,  and  the 
Mediterranean  Seas.  He  has  made  these  flights  in  all 
kinds  of  winds,  weather,  and  atmospheric  and  polemic 
conditions. 

At  last  he  has  ascended  higher  than  the  lark  and 
flown  faster  than  the  eagle  and  farther  than  the 
mightiest  bird  of  prey.  Small  wonder  then  that  he 
should  consider  the  flight  across  the  Atlantic  by  either 
the  aeroplane  or  the  Zeppelin  as  nothing  but  a  ques- 
tion of  time. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  man  does  not  doubt  that  even- 
tually not  only  the  Atlantic,  the  Pacific,  and  the  Seven 
Seas,  but  even  the  globe  itself  will  be  aerially  trans- 
navigated.  His  only  concern  is  how  soon  these  feats 
will  be  accomplished  facts. 

Several  preparations — but  only  one  real  attempt — 
to  fly  across  the  Atlantic  had  been  made  up  to  Janu- 
ary, 1919.  The  first  effort  to  cross  the  ocean  from 
America  to  Europe  by  air  was  made  by  Walter  Well- 
man  and  a  crew  of  five  men  in  the  dirigible  America 
on  October  15,  1910.  The  airship  measured  228  feet 
in  length  and  52  feet  in  diameter,  with  a  lifting  capac- 
ity of  twelve  tons.  The  envelope  carrying  the  gas 
weighed  approximately  two  tons.  Attached  to  the 
bag  was  a  car  156  feet  long.  The  nine  thousand  pounds 
of  gasoline  necessary  for  the  trip  were  stored  under 
the  floor  of  the  car.  The  America  carried  three  eighty 
horse-power  gasoline  engines,  one  of  which  was  a 
donkey,  the  two  others  being  used  to  drive  the  pro- 
pellers. Beneath  the  car  hung  a  27-foot  lifeboat  that 


THE   COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN    209 

was  to  be  used  in  case  they  had  to  abandon  the  airship. 
A  330-foot  equilibrator,  consisting  of  a  long  steel  cable 
on  which  were  strung  thirty  spool-like  steel  tanks  each 
carrying  75  pounds  of  gasoline,  and  forty  wooden 
blocks,  trailed  from  the  cabin.  The  blocks  were  about 
twenty  inches  long. 

The  object  of  the  equilibrator  was  to  eliminate  bal- 
last. It  was  intended  that  the  balloon  should  sail 
along  at  a  height  of  about  two  hundred  feet;  if  it  settled 
close  to  the  water  the  wooden  blocks  and  the  tanks 
would  float  on  the  water  and  relieve  it  of  some  of  its 
weight.  The  America  was  also  equipped  with  sextants, 
compasses,  and  other  instruments  for  locating  its 
position,  the  same  as  an  ocean-liner. 

Besides  Walter  Wellman,  the  explorer  and  writer, 
were  Melvin  Vaniman,  chief  engineer;  F.  Murray 
Vaniman,  navigator  of  airships;  J.  K.  Irwin,  wireless 
operator;  Albert  L.  Loud  and  John  Aubert,  assistant 
engineers. 

They  left  Atlantic  City  in  a  dead  calm  and  were 
towed  out  to  sea  by  a  motor-boat.  Three  days  later, 
on  October  18,  after  many  vicissitudes  the  engines 
broke  down  and  the  huge  gas-bag  was  at  the  mercy  of 
the  winds.  Wellman  and  his  crew  were  picked  up  by 
the  steamer  Trent  375  miles  east  of  Cape  Hatteras. 
The  dirigible  had  been  carried  out  of  its  course  because 
of  insufficient  power  to  navigate  against  the  winds  and 
had  to  be  abandoned,  a  total  loss. 

A  year  later,  financed  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 
of  Akron,  Ohio,  and  one  of  the  large  rubber  companies, 


210  AIRCRAFT 

a  balloon  called  the  Akron,  268  feet  long  and  47  feet  in 
diameter,  with  a  gas  capacity  of  350,000  cubic  feet, 
was  built  to  be  flown  across  the  Atlantic  by  Melvin 
Vaniman.  It  had  two  105  horse-power  engines. 

Unfortunately,  on  July  2,  1912,  while  making  a  trial 
flight  over  Absecon  Inlet,  near  Atlantic  City,  the  bal- 
loon took  fire  and  exploded,  killing  Melvin  Vaniman 
and  the  four  members  of  his  crew.  This  disaster  put 
an  end  to  building  dirigibles  in  this  country  for  trans- 
atlantic flight. 

The  preparation  for  another  attempt  to  cross  the 
Atlantic  was  made  by  Glenn  H.  Curtiss  through  the 
generosity  of  Rodman  Wanamaker,  who  financed  the 
building  of  the  flying-boat  America.  Owing  to  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war  this  project  was  abandoned. 

Neither  of  these  two  American-built  lighter-than-air 
ships  could  be  compared  in  size,  engine  power,  lifting 
capacity,  or  flying  radius  with  the  dirigibles  con- 
structed by  the  German  Government  and  people  un- 
der the  direction  of  Count  Ferdinand  von  Zeppelin. 
Indeed,  his  first  airship,  constructed  in  1900,  measured 
410  feet  and  contained  400,000  cubic  feet  of  hydrogen, 
whereas  the  super-Zeppelins  were  many  times  larger 
than  either  Wellman's  or  Vaniman's  airship. 

A  description  of  the  giant  dirigible  brought  down  in 
the  summer  of  1916  in  Essex,  England,  will  give  an 
excellent  idea  of  the  gigantic  proportions,  the  buoy- 
ancy, the  engine  power,  and  the  accommodations  of 
these  leviathans  of  the  air. 

The  airship  measured  650  feet  to  680  feet  in  length 


THE   COMMERCIAL   ZEPPELIN    211 

and  72  feet  in  diameter.  The  yessel  was  of  cigar- 
shaped  stream-line  form,  with  a  blunt  rounded  nose 
and  a  tail  that  tapered  off  to  a  sharp  point.  The  frame- 
work was  made  of  longitudinal  latticework  girders, 
connected  together  at  intervals  by  circumferential  lat- 
ticework tires,  all  made  of  aluminum  alloy  resembling 
duraluminum.  The  whole  was  braced  and  stiffened 
by  a  system  of  wires.  The  weight  of  the  framework 
was  about  nine  tons,  or  barely  a  fifth  of  the  total  of 
fifty  tons  attributed  to  the  airship  complete  with  en- 
gines, fuel,  guns,  and  crew.  There  were  twenty-four 
balloonets  arranged  within  the  framework,  and  the 
hydrogen  capacity  was  2,000,000  cubic  feet. 

A  cat  walk — an  arched  passage  with  a  footway  nine 
inches  wide — running  along  the  keel  enabled  the  crew, 
which  consisted  of  twenty-two  men,  to  move  about 
the  ship  and  get  from  one  gondola  to  another.  The 
gondolas,  made  of  aluminum  alloy,  were  four  in  num- 
ber: one  was  placed  forward  on  the  centre  line;  two 
were  amidships,  one  on  each  side,  and  the  fourth  was 
aft,  again  on  the  centre  line. 

The  vessel  was  propelled  at  60  miles  an  hour  in  still 
air — by  means  of  six  Maybach-Mercedes  gasoline 
engines  of  240  horse-power  each,  or  1,440  horse-power 
in  all.  Each  had  six  vertical  cylinders  with  overhead 
valves  and  water  cooling,  and  weighed  about  a  thou- 
sand pounds.  They  were  connected  each  to  a  propeller 
shaft  and  also  to  a  dynamo  used  either  in  lighting  or 
for  furnishing  power  to  the  wireless  installation.  One 
of  these  engines  with  its  propeller  was  placed  at  the 


212  AIRCRAFT 

back  of  the  large  forward  gondola;  two  were  in  the 
amidships  gondolas,  and  three  were  in  the  after  gon- 
dola. In  the  last  case  one  of  the  propellers  was  in  the 
centre  line  of  the  ship,  and  the  shafts  of  the  two  others 
were  stayed  out,  one  on  either  side.  The  gasoline-tanks 
had  a  capacity  of  two  thousand  gallons,  and  the  pro- 
peller shafts  were  carried  in  ball  bearings. 

Forward  of  the  engine-room  of  the  front  gondola, 
but  separated  from  it  by  a  small  air  space,  was  first 
the  wireless-operator's  cabin  and  then  the  commander's 
room.  The  latter  was  the  navigating  platform,  and  in 
it  were  concentrated  the  controls  of  the  elevators  and 
rudder  at  the  stern,  the  arrangement  for  equalizing 
the  levels  in  the  gasoline  and  water  tanks,  the  engine- 
room  telegraphs,  and  the  switchboards  of  electrical 
gear  for  releasing  the  bombs.  Nine  machine-guns 
were  carried.  Two  of  these,  of  half-inch  bore,  were 
mounted  on  the  top  of  the  vessel,  and  six  of  small 
caliber  were  placed  in  the  gondolas — two  in  the  for- 
ward, one  each  in  the  amidships  ones,  and  two  in  the 
aft  one.  The  ninth  was  carried  in  the  tail. 

The  separate  gas-bags  were  a  decided  advantage  over 
the  free  balloon  and  earlier  airships,  which  carried  all 
the  gas  in  one  compartment;  for  if  the  latter  sprung  a 
leak  for  any  reason  it  had  to  descend,  whereas  the  Zep- 
pelin could  keep  afloat  with  several  of  the  separate 
compartments  in  a  complete  state  of  collapse. 

Since  the  Zeppelin,  like  all  airships,  is  buoyed  up  by 
hydrogen  gas — which  weighs  one  and  one-tenth  pounds 
per  two  hundred  cubic  feet  as  compared  with  sixteen 


THE   COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN    213 

pounds  which  the  same  amount  of  air  weighs — the 
dirigible  is  sent  up  by  the  simple  expedient  of  increas- 
ing the  volume  of  gas  in  the  envelopes  until  the  ves- 
sel rises.  This  was  done  by  releasing  the  gas  for  stor- 
age-tanks into  the  gas-bags.  In  order  to  head  the  nose 
up;  air  was  kept  in  certain  of  the  rear  bags,  thus  mak- 
ing the  tail  heavier  than  the  forward  part,  which 
naturally  rose  first.  Steering  was  done  by  means  of 
rudder  or  the  engines,  or  both,  and  the  airship  was 
kept  on  an  even  keel  by  use  of  lateral  planes.  The  air- 
ship could  be  brought  down  by  forcing  the  gas  out  of 
the  bags  into  the  gas-tanks,  thus  decreasing  the  volume, 
and  by  increasing  the  air  in  the  various  compart- 
ments. 

This  airship  had  a  flying  radius  of  800  miles,  could 
climb  to  12,000  feet,  could  carry  a  useful  load  of  30 
tons,  and  could  remain  in  the  air  for  50  hours. 

Because  so  many  Zeppelins  were  lost  to  Germany 
and  because  so  much  time  and  money  were  necessary 
to  construct  the  enormous  airships,  many  people  have 
jumped  to  the  conclusion  that  the  rigid  dirigible  was 
an  absolute  failure  even  as  an  offensive  war  weapon. 
Yet  despite  its  bulk  and  the  fact  that  it  could  not  fly 
faster  than  seventy  miles  an  hour,  and  though  more 
than  a  hundred  Zeppelins  raided  England  at  some 
time  or  another  during  the  war,  only  two  were  shot 
down  by  aeroplanes  and  only  a  few  by  antiaircraft 
guns.  Most  of  them  were  destroyed  because  they 
ran  out  of  fuel  and  consequently  became  unmanage- 
able and  were  blown  out  of  their  course  and  forced  to 


214  AIRCRAFT 

land  or  had  to  descend  so  low  that  they  came  within 
easy  range  of  aircraft  guns  of  the  land  batteries  or  the 
naval  guns. 

This  record  is  truly  surprising  when  we  stop  to  con- 
sider that  the  Zeppelin  had  to  navigate  entirely  by 
compass  and  mostly  at  night  over  hundreds  of  miles  of 
hostile  sea  and  land,  opposed  by  the  guns  of  a  huge 
Allied  fleet  and  thousands  of  antiaircraft  guns,  with- 
out lights  or  landmarks  to  aid  them  and  often  with 
untrained  and  inexperienced  pilots  to  guide  them! 
No  wonder  that  some  of  these  airships  met  disaster — 
like  the  L-49,  which  had  to  land  in  France;  or  the  L-20, 
which  was  forced  to  land  on  the  Norwegian  coast  near 
Stavanger;  or  others,  which  came  down  so  low  over 
the  North  Sea  that  they  became  easy  targets  for  the 
British  torpedo-boat  guns. 

But  this  is  judging  the  Zeppelins  purely  as  offensive 
weapons  of  war.  Even  as  such  they  forced  the  British 
Empire  to  maintain  a  large  standing  army  and  a  huge 
armament  of  guns  and  aeroplanes  in  England  by 
threatening  to  land  a  mammoth  army  of  invasion  there 
from  Belgium.  What  they  did  to  spread  terror  in 
Belgium  and  to  keep  the  German  army  informed  by 
wireless  of  the  conditions  behind  the  British  and 
French  and  Belgian  lines  in  the  first  advance  to  the 
Marne  is  a  matter  of  history.  Also  what  they  per- 
formed in  disorganizing  the  armies  and  in  disconcert- 
ing the  people  of  Antwerp  and  Bucharest,  not  to  men- 
tion many  Russian  cities  and  Paris  itself,  during  the 
Hun  advance  against  those  cities,  is  almost  too  horri- 


THE   COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN    215 

ble  to  relate.  Over  the  Rumanian  capital  alone  they 
descended  so  low — because  there  were  no  antiaircraft 
guns  to  defend  the  city — that  they  scarcely  flew  clear  of 
the  buildings  as  they  rained  down  hundreds  of  tons  of 
high  explosives  on  the  frightened  inhabitants,  and 
even  bombed  a  part  of  the  imperial  palace,  where  the 
Queen  was  nursing  the  Crown  Prince. 

This  unlawful  use  of  these  giant  aircraft  does  not 
detract  from  what  they  demonstrated  could  be  done 
in  the  way  of  aerial  navigation  and  transportation  un- 
der the  frightful  opposition  of  war,  and  it  is  only  an 
augury  of  what  will  be  accomplished  when  the  same 
vessels  of  the  air  will  be  put  to  carrying  man  up  and 
down  the  aerial  highways  of  the  heavens,  which  know 
no  barriers,  obstructions,  or  hostile  opposition. 

Their  greatest  service  to  the  Germans  was  as  aerial 
scouts  rather  than  as  ethereal  battleships  or  cruisers; 
and  if  these  rigid  dirigibles  had  performed  no  other 
feats  for  the  Huns,  from  the  Teutonic  point  of  view  at 
least,  their  work  in  planning  and  directing  every  move 
of  the  German  high-seas  fleet  in  the  great  naval  bat- 
tle off  Jutland  amply  repaid  Germany  for  the  time 
and  money  and  effort  expended  in  building  those  air 
cruisers. 

On  May  30  in  the  first  stage  of  that  battle  it  will  be 
recalled  that  Admiral  Sir  David  Beatty  was  cruising 
with  his  scout  fleet  looking  for  the  Germans  several 
hundred  miles  east  of  the  British  grand  fleet,  which 
was  under  Admiral  Sir  John  Jellicoe,  somewhere  off  the 
Orkney  Islands.  Flying  out  under  the  protection  of  a 


216  AIRCRAFT 

fog-bank  that  was  moving  down  over  the  North  Sea  a 
German  naval  Zeppelin  discovered  the  isolated  posi- 
tion of  Admiral  Beatty's  scout  fleet  and  sent  a  wireless 
message  to  the  German  high-seas  fleet,  which  came 
out  under  Admiral  Von  Scheer  with  the  sole  object  of 
cutting  off  and  destroying  Admiral  Beatty's  fleet 
before  it  could  unite  with  the  British  grand  fleet. 
Undoubtedly,  had  it  not  been  for  a  seaplane  launched 
from  the  mother  ship  Engadine  and  flown  by  Flight 
Lieutenant  Frederick  J.  Rutland,  who  discovered  the 
entire  German  navy  coming  out,  the  British  scout 
fleet  might  have  been  cut  off  and  completely  destroyed 
before  Admiral  Jellicoe  could  come  to  the  rescue. 

In  the  meantime  another  Zeppelin  was  hovering 
over  the  British  grand  fleet  far  to  the  north  and  was 
keeping  the  German  Admiral  Von  Scheer  fully  in- 
formed by  wireless  of  every  ship  in  the  squadron.  It 
was  this  Zeppelin  which  finally  warned  the  German 
admiral  to  return  to  the  protection  of  secure  fortresses 
and  defenses  of  the  great  German  naval  base  of  Helgo- 
land. By  thus  saving  the  Hun  fleet  from  annihilation 
in  this  naval  encounter  it  was  possible  for  the  Ger- 
mans to  hold  a  complete,  continuous,  and  dangerous 
threat  that  their  navy  might  again  come  out  to  at- 
tack England  or  France  and  cut  off  English  troops  from 
the  Continent.  This  possibility  alone  compelled  the 
Allies  to  maintain,  until  the  close  of  the  war,  an  enor- 
mous fleet  at  all  times  in  the  North  Sea. 

There  is  no  gainsaying  that  in  time  of  war  the  aero- 
plane has  many  advantages  over  the  Zeppelin.  The 


THE   COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN    217 

heavier-than-air  machine  can  be  produced  in  quantity 
much  more  readily  than  the  lighter-than-air  craft. 
Exact  figures  on  the  cost  of  Zeppelins  are  not  avail- 
able. W.  L.  Marsh,  in  the  British  publication  Aero- 
nautics, gives  half  a  million  dollars  as  the  estimated 
cost  of  a  superdirigible  of  sixty  tons,  having  a  lift  of 
thirty-eight  tons.  This  high  cost  is  due,  among 
other  things,  to  the  enormous  building  in  which  the 
airship  must  be  constructed,  for  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  one  of  these  dinosaurs  of  the  air  extends  its 
bulk  along  the  ground  farther  than  the  Woolworth 
Building  towers  in  the  air.  Indeed,  it  could  not  de- 
scend in  an  ordinary  city  street  because  of  its  bulk,  and 
if  it  did  it  would  extend  more  than  three  city  blocks 
of  two  hundred  feet  frontage!  Moreover,  the  plant 
necessary  to  generate  the  hydrogen  gas  sufficient  to 
inflate  a  bag  of  two  million  cubic  feet  capacity  would 
cost  fifty  thousand  dollars  alone.  The  amount  of 
aluminum  in  the  L-49,  forced  to  land  in  France  in  the 
springs  of  1918,  would  make  a  foot-bridge  over  the 
East  River  as  long  as  the  famous  Brooklyn  Bridge ! 

To  land  and  house  such  an  elusive  and  buoyant 
monster  requires  many  winches  and  some  two  hun- 
dred men.  Even  then  some  have  been  known  to  run 
away.  This  happened  in  the  winter  of  1907,  when  the 
Patrie,  a  French  semirigid  dirigible,  which  was  only  a 
third  as  large  as  the  German  super-Zeppelins,  was 
caught  in  a  gale  of  wind  near  Verdun  and  in  spite  of 
the  two  hundred  soldiers  who  held  her  in  leash  she 
broke  her  moorings  and,  flying  over  France,  England, 


218  AIRCRAFT 

Wales,  Ireland,  shedding  a  few  fragments  on  the  way, 
finally  disappeared  into  the  sky  above  the  North 
Atlantic. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  six-ton  aeroplane  can  carry  a 
useful  load  of  two  tons  and  does  not  cost  more  than 
$50,000.  Also  the  wing  spread  of  150  feet  of  the  largest 
aeroplane  is  small  compared  to  a  700-foot  Zeppelin. 
Consequently,  aeroplanes  can  be  more  readily  pro- 
duced in  quantity,  can  be  housed,  and  require  only  a 
half-dozen  men  to  take  care  of  them. 

Because  of  the  small  size  of  the  scout  machine — 
with  only  a  26-foot  wing  spread — and  its  speed  of  more 
than  a  hundred  miles  an  hour — compared  to  the  Zep- 
pelin speed  of  60  or  70  miles — the  aeroplane  was  in- 
valuable for  scouting  over  short  distances,  for  duels 
in  the  air,  for  directing  artillery-fire,  for  contact  pa- 
trol; and  the  larger  aeroplanes  were  useful  for  bombing 
in  huge  fleets. 

In  all  other  purposes  of  war  the  Zeppelin  is  far 
superior  to  the  aeroplane.  Even  the  contention  that 
the  aeroplanes  stopped  the  Zeppelin  raids  on  England 
is  absurd.  It  is  true  that  two  Zeppelins  were  brought 
down  over  England  by  aeroplane,  but  it  was  Septem- 
ber 3,  1916,  two  years  after  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war,  when  young  Leefe  Robinson  brought  down  the 
first  Hun  dirigible  over  London.  It  was  June  3,  1915, 
when  a  Canadian  sublieutenant,  R.  A.  J.  Warneford, 
flying  a  Morane  monoplane  for  the  Royal  Naval  Air 
Service,  got  above  a  dirigible  returning  to  its  aero- 
drome in  Belgium  from  a  raid  on  England  and  droppecf 


THE   COMMERCIAL   ZEPPELIN    219 

a  bomb  upon  the  gigantic  gas-bag,  blowing  it  up  and 
killing  the  crew;  but  before  that  came  to  pass  thirteen 
Zeppelin  raids  had  already  been  visited  upon  England, 
408  bombs  had  been  dropped,  twenty-one  persons  had 
been  killed  and  a  thousand  injured.  In  both  this  case 
and  in  the  case  of  Lieutenant  Robinson,  more  than  a 
year  later,  the  aeroplanes  happened  to  be  in  the  air 
above  the  Zeppelins  before  they  came  along,  and  the 
aeroplanes  in  both  instances  were  blown  completely 
upside  down  by  the  force  of  the  explosion.  Needless 
to  say,  a  moment  later  Lieutenant  Robinson  looped 
the  loop  for  joy  when  he  saw  what  destruction  he  had 
wrought. 

In  other  words,  because  the  Zeppelins  could  put  out 
their  lights,  shut  off  their  motors,  and  drift  through 
clouds  unheard  in  the  night  at  two  thousand  feet  alti- 
tude, and  because  the  dropping  of  the  bombs,  like  the 
throwing  out  of  ballast,  allowed  the  dirigibles  to  jump 
suddenly  up  to  much  higher  altitudes,  they  were  as  a 
rule  far  too  elusive  for  the  aeroplanes  to  get  near  enough 
even  to  shoot  incendiary  bullets  into  them. 

In  point  of  flying  comforts  and  safety,  time  that 
can  be  spent  in  the  air,  flying  distances  and  useful  load 
carried,  the  Zeppelin  is  far  in  advance  of  any  kind  of 
heavier-than-air  machine  ever  built. 

Before  the  war  the  passenger-carrying  Zeppelins 
Schwaben  and  Victoria  Louise  were  equipped  with 
cabins  for  the  accommodation  of  twenty-four  pas- 
sengers and  crew.  Meals  were  served  a  la  carte;  two 
rows  of  easy-chairs  were  arranged  before  the  win- 


220  AIRCRAFT 

dows,  with  a  passageway  between;  and  there  was  a 
wash-room  with  water-faucets;  which  will  give  an  idea 
of  the  completeness  of  the  appointments  for  the  com- 
fort of  passengers.  In  the  super-Zeppelins  constructed 
since  then,  and  now  being  fitted  to  fly  the  Atlantic, 
there  is  ample  room  for  a  promenade  of  four  to  five 
hundred  feet  in  the  keel.  Moreover,  there  is  even  a 
greater  opportunity  for  the  giant  sky-liners  to  provide 
luxurious  cabins  and  other  comforts  for  the  travellers, 
such  as  of  course  cannot  possibly  be  supplied  on  a 
heavier-than-air  machine,  where  even  the  chief  en- 
gineer cannot  so  much  as  leave  his  seat  to  examine  the 
engine  once  the  machine  is  in  flight ! 

The  ability  of  the  airship  to  cruise  at  low  heights  is 
another  comfort  the  dirigible  enjoys  over  the  aero- 
plane, which,  to  insure  a  safe  landing  in  event  of  engine 
trouble,  usually  navigates  across  country  at  five  thou- 
sand feet  altitude  or  more.  The  most  pleasurable 
height  for  air  cruising  is  between  five  hundred  and  one 
thousand  feet,  for  from  there  the  perspective  of  the 
countryside  is  not  too  diminutive. 

As  regards  the  safety  of  travel  in  lighter-than-air 
machines,  naturally  there  have  been  several  disasters 
such  as  are  inevitable  in  perfecting  a  new  science.  The 
disasters  that  occur  in  the  air  are  closely  analogous  to 
those  of  the  sea.  The  greatest  dangers  to  the  airship 
are  the  wind,  storms,  and  fire.  Of  these  the  last  is  the 
most  dangerous,  because  hydrogen  gas  is  so  highly 
explosive.  That  was  what  caused  the  destruction  of 
the  Akron,  with  Vaniman  and  his  companions.  What 


THE   COMMERCIAL   ZEPPELIN    221 

caused  the  explosion  that  annihilated  the  crew  of 
twenty-five  of  the  L-ll  in  September,  1913,  is  not 
known.  Perhaps  the  absorption  of  the  rays  of  the 
sun  caused  the  gas  to  expand,  bursting  the  gas-bags. 
Glossed  surfaces  now  deflect  the  rays  and  help  to  avoid 
that  danger. 

The  extraordinary  point  in  the  long  experimenta- 
tion with  Zeppelins  was  the  immunity  of  the  actual 
crews  of  the  airships  from  death,  until  the  thirteenth 
year  of  the  Zeppelin's  existence.  Despite  the  ever- 
recurring  accidents  and  the  frequent  loss  of  life  and 
serious  injury  among  landing  parties  and  the  work- 
shop hands,  not  a  single  fatality  occurred  to  any  of 
the  navigators  until  September,  1913,  when  naval 
Zeppelin  L-l,  which  was  actually  the  fourteenth  Zep- 
pelin to  be  constructed,  was  wrecked  in  the  North 
Sea  by  a  squall,  her  crew  of  thirteen  being  drowned. 

Most  of  the  minor  accidents  to  Zeppelins  were  due 
to  poor  landings  and  high  winds.  At  first  this  was  not 
to  be  avoided,  because  of  the  huge  bulk  of  these  air- 
liners and  their  great  buoyancy  and  the  ease  with 
which  the  wind  could  blow  them  against  their  moor- 
ings. With  experience,  though,  this  was  eliminated. 
Indeed,  the  officers  of  the  passenger-carrying  Schwdben 
never  bothered  about  the  weather,  and  went  out  when 
aeroplanes  would  not  dare  go  up.  The  Parseval  VI 
made  224  trips  about  Berlin  within  two  years'  time, 
remained  in  the  air  a  total  of  342  hours,  carried  2,286 
passengers,  and  travelled  a  distance  of  15,000  miles. 

To  compare  this  record  with  the  long  list  of  those 


222  AIRCRAFT 

who  have  lost  their  lives  in  aeroplane  flying  and  ex- 
perimentation is  impossible  and  of  no  avail.  The 
radical  differences  of  construction  make  it  much  easier 
for  the  balloon  to  avoid  disaster  than  the  aeroplane. 

Whenever  a  wing  breaks  on  an  aeroplane  or  when- 
ever the  engine  on  a  single-motored  machine  stops, 
the  aeroplane  must  fall  down  or  glide  to  a  landing. 
These  defects  will  undoubtedly  be  greatly  overcome 
with  standardized  construction  of  aircraft  and  the 
establishment  of  proper  landing-fields.  The  hazard, 
nevertheless,  will  always  be  there  in  some  degree. 

Such  an  accident  is  not  frequent  with  a  lighter-than- 
air  machine,  which  does  not  depend  on  its  motor  but 
upon  gas  to  keep  it  afloat.  Indeed,  an  airship  may 
*  drift  hundreds  of  miles  with  the  wind  with  all  its 
motors  completely  shut  off — which,  by  the  way,  is 
another  reason  why  the  transatlantic  flight  wit  i  the 
air-currents,  which  move  from  America  to  Europe, 
seems  to  be  a  very  feasible  possibility  for  the  lighter- 
than-air  craft.  The  conservation  of  fuel  under  such  a 
condition  is  tremendous. 

"It  is  unquestionably  her  long  endurance  and  great 
weight-carrying  capacity  which  gives  the  airship  her 
chief  advantage  over  the  aeroplane,"  says  W.  L. 
Marsh,  the  eminent  authority  on  dirigibles  previously 
referred  to.  "It  will  no  doubt  be  conceded  that  in 
spite  of  the  stimulus  of  war  the  airship  is  little  further 
advanced  in  development  than  the  aeroplane  was  at 
the  beginning  of  1915;  and  already  airships  have  vis- 
ited this  country" — England — " which  could  with  ease 


1 

•a 


THE   COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN    223 

fly  from  England  to  America,  carrying  a  considerable 
load  of  merchandise.  A  present-day  Zeppelin  has  a 
gross  lift  of  sixty-five  tons,  of  which  some  58  per  cent 
is  available  for  crew,  fuel,  ballast,  merchandise,  and 
so  on.  If  we  take  the  distance  across  the  Atlantic  in  a 
direct  line  as  two  thousand  miles  we  get  the  following 
disposition  of  our  load  of  thirty-eight  tons: 


TONS 

Crew  of  30 2.3 

Ballast 2.0 

Gasoline 12.0 

Oil 2.0 

Extras  [food,  and  so  on] 1.0 

Total  [say,  20  tons] 19.3 


"This  leaves  eighteen  tons  available  for  freight. 
r  hese  figures  are  based  on  the  ship  maintaining  a  con- 
^tant  speed  of  fifty  miles  an  hour,  at  which  she  would 
do  the  journey  in  forty  hours,  consuming  650  pounds  of 
gasoline  an  hour. 

"This  represents  what  a  rigid  airship  of  slightly 
over  capacity  can  do  to-day,  and  is  given  as  an  in- 
dication of  what  is  possible  in  a  comparatively  early 
stage  of  development. 

"No  one  who  has  considered  rigid  airship  design 
and  studied  rapid  strides  which  aeroplanes  have  made 
in  the  last  three  and  a  half  years  can  doubt  for  a  mo- 
ment that  an  airship  could  be  built  in  the  course  of 
the  next  two  years  which  would  have  a  disposal  lift — 


224  AIRCRAFT 

or,  in  aeroplane  parlance,  a  '  useful  load ' — of  over  two 
hundred  tons,  giving  it  an  endurance  of  anything  up 
to  three  weeks  at  a  speed  of  forty  to  forty-five  miles 
an  hour. 

"I  am  endeavoring  to  state  the  case  as  moderately 
as  possible,  and  am  therefore  purposely  putting  the 
speed  at  a  low  figure.  I  believe  I  am  correct  in  esti- 
mating the  full  speed  of  a  modern  Zeppelin  at  seventy- 
five  miles  an  hour.  I  shall  not  be  too  optimistic  in 
claiming  eighty  miles  as  a  conservative  figure  for  the 
future.  There  is  little  doubt  that  a  ship  of  some  800,- 
000  cubic  feet  should  be  able  to  carry  twenty  or  thirty 
passengers,  having  a  full  speed  of  about  seventy  miles 
an  hour,  which  it  could  maintain  for  two  days  or  more, 
the  endurance  at  forty-five  miles  an  hour  being  prob- 
ably in  the  neighborhood  of  five  or  six  days.  This 
ship  would  be  able  to  cross  the  Atlantic.  A  present- 
day  Zeppelin  could  carry  some  eighteen  tons  of  freight 
across  to  America,  and  the  really  big  ship — it  must  be 
remembered  that  up  to  the  present  we  have  been 
talking  of  lighter-than-air  midgets — could  transport  at 
least  150  tons  the  same  distance." 

But  Mr.  Marsh  is  not  the  only  British  authority  on 
aerodynamics  who  has  gone  on  record  as  to  the  prac- 
ticability of  transnavigation  of  the  Atlantic.  The 
British  Aerial  Transport  Committee,  consisting  of 
some  of  the  most  representative  men  of  Great  Britain, 
such  as  G.  Holt-Thomas,  Tom  Sopwith,  H.  G.  Wells, 
Brigadier-General  Brancker,  Lord  Montagu  of  Beau- 
lieu  and  Lord  Northcliffe — to  mention  only  a  few — in 


THE   COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN    225 

its  report  of  November,  1918,  to  the  Air  Council  of 
the  British  Parliament,  says: 

"Airships  now  exist  with  a  range  of  more  than  4,000 
miles,  and  they  can  travel  at  a  speed  of  78  miles  an 
hour.  By  running  their  engines  slower  a  maximum 
range  of  8,000  miles  can  be  obtained.  On  first  speed 
Cape  Town,  South  Africa,  is  to-day  aerially  only  a 
little  more  than  three  days  from  Southampton.  This 
ship  could  fly  across  the  Atlantic  and  return  without 
stopping.  The  committee  points  out  that  the  airship 
will  soon  develop  a  speed  of  100  miles  an  hour,  that 
it  will  be  fitted  with  ample  saloons,  staterooms,  an  ele- 
vator to  a  roof-garden,  and  it  will  be  able  to  remain  in 
the  air  for  more  than  a  week." 

Mr.  Ed.  M.  Thierry,  Berlin  correspondent  of  the 
N.  E.  A.,  under  date  of  December,  1918,  says:  "I 
recently  visited  the  immense  works  outside  Berlin  at 
Staaken.  The  new  super-Zeppelin  which  is  now  build- 
ing has  a  gas  capacity  of  100,000  cubic  metres.  It 
will  have  nine  engines  and  eight  propellers.  This 
transatlantic  Zeppelin  is  800  feet  in  length.  It  will 
cost  nearly  $1,000,000,  and  it  will  have  a  carrying 
capacity  of  100  passengers  and  forty-five  tons  of  mail 
and  baggage,  and  thirty  tons  of  petrol,  oil,  and  water 
and  provisions.  The  first  machine  for  the  transat- 
lantic service  is  to  be  completed  in  July,  1919.  For 
maintenance  of  the  service  planned,  eight  active  ma- 
chines and  four  reserved  will  be  required.  As  soon  as 
the  international  situation  is  clarified  it  is  proposed  to 
establish  the  service  with  a  hangar  in  New  York." 


226  AIRCRAFT 

Major  Thomas  S.  Baldwin,  U.  S.  A.  C.,  considered 
one  of  the  best  authorities  in  regard  to  balloons  and 
dirigibles  in  the  United  States,  said  that  the  Germans 
had  constructed  aircraft  that  could  stay  in  the  air  for 
two  weeks  and  could  make  upward  of  75  miles  an 
hour.  Major  Baldwin  stated  that  the  relatively  small 
American  Blimps  were  capable  of  60  miles  an  hour. 
Only  recently  one  of  these  flew  from  Akron,  Ohio,  to 
New  York  without  stopping,  a  distance  of  more  than 
300  miles,  and  the  Naval  NC-1  flew  from  New  York 
to  Pensacola,  Florida,  a  distance  of  over  1,000  miles, 
stopping  at  Norfolk,  Virginia,  and  Savannah,  Georgia. 

On  December  12  an  interesting  experiment  of  launch- 
ing a  plane  from  a  dirigible  was  conducted  at  Rocka- 
way  Beach,  New  York.  The  dirigible  rose  about  one 
hundred  feet  above  the  sand-field  near  Fort  Tilden. 
An  aeroplane  was  attached  to  the  roof.  After  dis- 
charging ballast  and  starting  the  motor  the  dirigible 
ascended  to  three  thousand  feet  and  released  the  aero- 
plane, which  dived  about  one  thousand  feet  and  then 
flew  off  to  Mineola.  Lieutenant  George  Crompton, 
Naval  Flying  Corps,  piloted  the  dirigible,  assisted  by 
J.  L.  Nichols  and  G.  Cooper.  The  plane  was  piloted 
by  A.  W.  Redfield. 

In  the  flight  of  the  British  naval  dirigible  R-23  over 
the  North  Sea,  in  April,  1919,  the  aeroplane  was  hung 
suspended  from  the  keel  amidships  and  launched  when 
near  the  British  coast. 

The  above  experiment  is  cited  only  as  an  indication 
of  what  the  possibilities  are  of  combining  the  aero- 


THE   COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN    227 

plane  with  the  dirigible  in  landing  mail  or  express 
from  dirigibles  crossing  the  Atlantic.  Undoubtedly 
aeroplanes  weighing  only  a  thousand  pounds,  with  a 
flying  radius  of  600  miles  and  making  150  miles  an 
hour,  will  be  launched  from  superdirigibles  500  miles 
from  the  journey's  end,  especially  when  airships  are 
to  be  constructed  with  10,000,000  cubic  feet  of  gas, 
with  a  60  per  cent  gross  lift  for  crew,  fuel,  freight,  and 
so  on,  as  Mr.  Marsh  says  is  quite  possible  in  the  imme- 
diate future. 

Experiments  for  launching  aeroplanes  from  ocean- 
liners  for  a  like  purpose  are  already  under  way.  The 
object  is  to  fly  the  mail  for  London  or  New  York  from 
the  ocean  greyhounds  as  soon  as  they  get  within  five 
hundred  miles  of  either  coast.  This  will,  of  course, 
cut  the  flight  time  from  New  York  to  London  con- 
siderably. As  a  matter  of  fact  the  dirigible  might  fly 
over  only  the  great  expanse  of  water  from  land's  end 
to  land's  end,  while  the  aeroplanes  negotiated  the  re- 
mainder of  the  distance.  It  is  granted  that  for  short 
flights  over  land  the  aeroplane  is  twice  as  fast  as  the 
Zeppelin,  whereas  the  latter,  because  it  can  stay  in 
the  air  for  weeks,  is  the  best  adapted  for  long  cruises 
over  large  bodies  of  water.  Moreover,  the  removal  of 
the  weight  of  an  aeroplane  from  a  dirigible  six  hundred 
miles  from  its  journey's  end  would  facilitate  the  re- 
maining flight  of  the  Zeppelin  by  just  so  much;  it 
would  be  equivalent  to  throwing  out  ballast  to  keep 
a  balloon  in  the  air. 

Perhaps    of    all    the    revolutionary    scientific    de- 


228  AIRCRAFT 

velopments  of  the  Great  War — especially  in  the  field 
of  chemistry — the  one  that  may  perform  the  greatest 
service  to  mankind  is  the  steps  taken  by  the  Bureau 
of  Mines  to  produce  helium,  the  non-inflammable  gas 
which  has  92  per  cent  of  the  lifting  power  of  hydrogen, 
in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  used  in  floating  airships ! 

A  non-inflammable  gas  with  such  a  lifting  capacity 
as  helium  has  been  the  dream  of  the  aeronaut  and  the 
dirigible  engineer  ever  since  the  Robert  brothers  first 
conducted  their  experiments  in  France  in  1784  and 
found  that  hydrogen  had  greater  buoyancy  than  any 
other  gas  available  in  large  quantities  for  balloons; 
for  with  it  they  could  jump  over  the  highest  peaks  of 
the  Himalaya  Mountains  and  the  broadest  expanses 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean  without  danger  of  the  gas  ignit- 
ing from  the  sun  or  the  engine. 

It  will  be  recalled  that  we  pointed  out  that  the 
greatest  danger  to  people  riding  in  dirigibles  was  the 
possibility  of  heat  expanding  and  exploding  the  hydro- 
gen gas.  One  of  the  first  airships  to  experience  this 
fate  simply  passed  through  a  cloud  into  the  hot  sun, 
whose  rays  expanded  and  exploded  the  gas,  blowing 
the  airship  and  its  crew  into  smithereens  before  they 
could  open  the  gauges  and  release  the  pressure.  The 
same  thing  may  have  caused  the  explosion  of  the  Ger- 
man dirigible  L-2,  which  killed  its  crew  of  twenty-five; 
and  the  American  airship  Akron,  which  blew  up,  de- 
stroying Vaniman  and  his  companions.  The  sub- 
stitution of  helium  entirely  eliminates  that  danger 
and  makes  it  possible  to  carry  heating  devices  for  the 


THE   COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN    229 

comfort  of  passengers  in  high  altitudes  where  it  is  so 
cold. 

Of  course,  the  lifting  power  of  helium  was  known  to 
students  of  aerostatics  before  the  war,  but  the  me- 
chanical difficulties  and  cost  involved  in  producing 
this  gas  on  an  industrial  basis  were  so  great  that  it 
would  hardly  pay  to  produce  it  for  commercial  pur- 
poses. Indeed,  the  largest  amount  of  helium  hi  any 
one  container  up  to  the  beginning  of  1918  was  five 
cubic  feet,  and  it  cost  between  fifteen  hundred  and  six 
thousand  dollars,  whereas  under  the  new  system  it  is 
expected  that  one  thousand  cubic  feet  can  be  produced 
for  one  hundred  dollars ! 

In  war,  however,  cost  is  nothing — results  are  every- 
thing. As  there  was  a  possibility  that  helium  might 
be  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  winning  the  war,  the  joint 
Army  and  Navy  Board  on  Rigid  Airships  in  August, 
1917,  provided  the  Bureau  of  Mines  with  the  requisite 
funds  to  do  the  necessary  experiment  work. 

This,  however,  is  not  the  time  or  the  place  to  go 
into  a  detailed  description  of  this  wonderful  gas  or 
how  it  was  obtained,  further  than  to  state  that  ap- 
paratus had  to  be  designed  on  entirely  new  lines  for 
the  liquefaction  of  nitrogen  into  natural  gases,  at 
temperatures  as  low  as  -317  degrees  Fahrenheit;  that 
the  natural  gas  of  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  Texas,  and  On- 
tario contains  1  per  cent  of  helium;  that  a  $900,000 
building  was  constructed  for  the  Navy  Department 
at  Fort  Worth,  Texas,  and  a  ten-inch  pipe-line  ninety- 
four  miles  long  was  laid,  at  a  cost  of  more  than  a  mil- 


230  AIRCRAFT 

lion  dollars,  from  the  wells  at  Petrolia,  Texas,  for  sup- 
plying the  plant  with  natural  gas;  and  that  the  first 
production  of  it  was  in  operation  April  1,  1918. 

Within  a  comparatively  short  time,  then,  we  ought 
i  to  see  many  companies  organized  in  this  country  for 
/  aerial  transnavigation  of  the  globe  by  helium  airship ! 
Before  the  year  1919  has  come  to  a  close  we  ought  to 
see  aeroplanes  and  dirigibles  jumping  the  Atlantic 
from  shore  to  shore.  Who  knows,  it  may  even  come 
to  pass  that  man  shall  become  as  much  a  creature  of 
the  air  as  the  birds!  As  a  world  of  exploration  and 
travel  the  heavens  offer  him  many  adventures.  It 
presents  to  him  the  shortest  distance  and  the  line  of 
least  resistance  between  any  two  given  points  on  this 
planet.  By  the  aircraft  he  has  already  designed  he 
has  penetrated  to  a  height  of  38,000  feet  and  flown  a 
thousand  miles  in  a  straight  line  without  stopping. 

Is  there  any  reason  to  doubt  that  in  a  very  short 
time  man  will  extend  the  capacity  of  these  airships  or 
the  distance  they  can  travel?  The  monetary  and 
laudatory  incentives  are  there.  For  affording  to  his 
fellow  man  and  his  chattels  faster  transportation, 
man's  reward  has  been  great  and  commensurate  with 
his  success.  In  order  to  win  that  remuneration  he 
has  enslaved  and  domesticated  the  beasts  of  the 
fields;  he  has  harnessed  the  river  and  the  streams;  he 
has  sought  out  the  secrets  of  nature  and  devised  ways 
and  means  to  make  her  hidden  forces  transport  him 
up  and  down  the  highways  and  byways  of  the  globe; 
for  that  reward  he  has  invented  machines  and  engines 
to  rush  him  over  the  land  and  across  the  seven  seas  at 


THE   COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN    231 

an  ever-increasing  rate.  When  mountains  have  raised 
their  ponderous  bulk  between  him  and  his  objective 
he  has  climbed  over  them  or  tunnelled  under  them  or 
cut  them  down;  when  rivers,  lakes,  or  oceans  have 
intervened  he  has  spanned  them  by  bridges  or  boats; 
when  isthmus  or  even  continents  have  injected  their 
lengths  between  him  and  his  markets  he  has  cut  them 
asunder  that  his  ships  might  pass  through. 

In  short,  transportation  is  the  life-blood  of  commerce, 
and  by  it  and  through  it  the  perishable  fruits  of  India, 
Africa,  and  America  are  carried  from  the  tropics  to  the 
remotest  corners  of  the  frigid  zone;  likewise  the  foods 
or  minerals  or  other  materials  confined  by  nature  to 
the  temperate  zone  are  taken  to  the  balmy  tropics. 
In  fact,  every  instrument  and  every  force  in  nature  is 
enslaved  so  that  man  may  enjoy  all  the  blessings  of  the 
earth  at  one  time  and  in  one  place.  Taken  all  in  all, 
the  speed  of  transportation  has  increased  man's  plea- 
sures and  years  proportionately. 

But  how  many  people  to-day  realize  that  when 
aerial  transportation  of  passengers  and  freight  has 
become  an  actual  accomplished  fact  in  the  sense  that 
water  and  land  transportation  of  man  and  his  goods 
now  is,  a  complete  redistribution  and  reconcentration 
of  the  cities,  people,  and  nations  and  a  new  inter- 
nationalism in  the  form  of  customs  and  language  will 
have  become  a  historic  fact!  This  statement  may 
seem  like  an  absurd  phantasy,  but  if  history  repeats 
itself  in  the  future  as  it  has  in  the  past  this  will  take 
place  as  surely  as  the  sun  rises. 

Ever  since  man  transported  his  goods  from  one 


232  AIRCRAFT 

place  to  another  he  has  followed  the  lines  of  least  re- 
sistance and  the  greatest  speed.  For  that  reason  rivers 
were  his  first  natural  highway.  At  the  stopping-places 
along  these  routes  and  waterways  he  built  for  himself 
villages,  towns,  and  cities.  The  biggest  of  these,  how- 
ever, have  always  been  located  at  some  favorable  ter- 
minus or  harbor.  Nineveh,  Babylon,  Carthage,  and 
Tyre  were  ancient  cities  that  grew  and  flourished 
because  they  were  either  the  termini  or  the  harbors  of 
advantageous  trade  routes  or  excellent  stopping-places 
on  great  waterways.  With  the  change  in  the  rivers  of 
commerce  those  cities  decayed  and  passed  away. 

The  rise  of  such  cities  as  Venice  and  Genoa  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  when  they  afforded  the  best  ports  for 
the  sailing-vessels  that  connected  the  caravan  routes 
which  came  across  Asia  from  the  East  for  their  dis- 
tribution of  goods  to  Europe  and  the  West,  was  due 
to  the  same  cause.  With  the  changing  of  those  routes 
those  cities  lost  their  importance  and  prestige  and 
became  what  they  are  to-day. 

At  the  present  time  most  of  the  largest  cities  of  the 
world  are  located  near  inviting  harbors  or  in  river- 
mouths  where  the  great  ships  of  commerce  come  and 
go  and  find  refuge.  London,  Liverpool,  New  York, 
Hamburg,  Philadelphia,  San  Francisco,  Calcutta, 
Bombay,  Havana,  Buenos  Aires — to  mention  only  a 
very  few — depend  primarily  upon  their  strategic 
geographic  position  for  their  business  and  their  very 
life. 

If  in  time,  then,  the  nearest  points  of  land  between 


THE   COMMERCIAL  ZEPPELIN    233 

continents  and  countries  become  the  great  landing- 
places  for  the  new  passenger  and  freight  ships  of  the 
air,  it  is  quite  conceivable  that  the  great  centres  of 
population  and  commerce  may  grow  up  themselves 
round  those  havens. 

Moreover,  if,  as  the  British  Civil  Aerial  Transport 
Committee  and  most  of  the  world's  aeronautical  author- 
ities are  convinced,  Cape  Town,  South  Africa — to  take 
but  one  example — is  only  three  days'  flight  by  aircraft 
from  Southampton,  England,  and  if  all  the  remotest 
capitals  of  the  East  are  only  hours  or  days  instead  of 
weeks  away  from  those  of  the  West,  there  will  be  such 
rapid  and  constant  intercommunication  that  customs 
practices  will  become  obsolete  and  one  international 
language  may  have  to  be  adopted  for  trade  and  con- 
venience. Indeed,  the  only  impediment  originally  put 
in  the  way  of  the  Handley  Page  Company's  London-to- 
Paris  air-line  was  the  violation  of  customs  practices, 
which  is  delaying  the  aeroplanes  from  making  the  round 
trip  between  breakfast  and  dinner. 

Furthermore,  with  the  coming  of  such  rapid  inter- 
communication it  is  conceivable  that  foggy  and  damp 
countries  like  the  British  Isles  may  be  abandoned — 
save  by  the  workers  of  minerals — as  living  and  manu- 
facturing places  for  more  beautiful  and  delightful  cli- 
mates, such  as  France  or  Spain.  Indeed,  the  pleas- 
antly located  gardens  and  plateaus  of  the  world — like 
the  one  in  Mexico,  for  instance — may  be  the  favorite 
dwelling-places  of  the  peoples  of  the  world  when  all 
the  fruits  and  foods  and  goods  of  the  earth  can  be 


234  AIRCRAFT 

aerially  transported  to  such  places  in  a  matter  of 
hours. 

Needless  to  say  that  when  each  country  possesses 
a  fleet  of  commercial  aircraft  numbered  by  tens  of 
thousands,  inherently  convertible  into  bombers  large 
enough  to  annihilate  whole  cities  entirely — as  French 
aeronautic  military  authorities  have  already  stated 
they  feared  Germany  would  be  able  to  do  with  ten 
thousand  aeroplanes  and  Zeppelins  in  the  next  ten 
years  unless  she  was  limited  in  her  construction  pro- 
gramme— when  many  countries  can  be  flown  over  in  a 
matter  of  hours  without  anything  to  prevent  them, 
then  undoubtedly  a  league  of  nations  will  have  been 
organized  for  self-preservation  and  war  abolished  as 
too  horrible  to  contemplate.  Thus  by  levelling  bound- 
aries and  borders  of  nations  and  countries  the  air- 
craft promises  to  perform  the  greatest  blessing  of  man- 
kind by  abolishing  war,  destroying  nationalism,  and 
establishing  internationalism  and  the  brotherhood  of 
man  throughout  the  world. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  REGULATION  OF  AIR  TRAFFIC 

IMPORTANCE  OF  SAME — LAWS  FORMED  BY  BRITISH  AERIAL 
TRANSPORT  COMMISSION  LIKELY  TO  BE  BASES  OF 
INTERNATIONAL  AERIAL  LAWS — COPY  OF  SAME 

WITH  aircraft  flying  over  cities,  towns,  countries, 
continents,  and  the  oceans,  carrying  passengers,  it  is 
becoming  absolutely  essential  that  a  code  of  laws  for 
aerial  navigation  should  be  adopted  by  the  United 
States,  and  an  international  code  should  also  be  adopted 
by  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

In  the  United  States  laws  should  be  adopted  to  regu- 
late the  inspection  of  aircraft  which  carry  passengers, 
just  as  sea  and  river  navigation  is  now  regulated,  in 
order  to  protect  the  lives  of  the  passengers,  and  also 
to  protect  the  lives  of  the  people  living  in  the  cities 
where  these  machines  are  apt  to  descend,  on  account 
of  damages  that  could  be  collected,  etc.,  in  case  a 
machine  fell  upon  and  destroyed  private  property. 
Unless  this  is  done,  with  the  tremendous  increase  of 
the  number  of  aircraft  in  the  United  States,  there  is 
apt  to  be  a  considerable  number  of  lives  lost  unneces- 
sarily, and  a  great  deal  of  damage  done  to  private 
property,  for  which  no  compensation  can  be  awarded. 

In  the  matter  of  international  regulation  of  aircraft 
it  is  a  great  deal  more  important  because  of  the  ease 

235 


236  AIRCRAFT 

with  which  commodities  could  be  smuggled  in  from 
one  country  to  another,  even  though  mountains  or 
rivers  intervene  at  the  borders.  Flying  at  one  hundred 
miles  per  hour,  carrying  two  or  three  tons,  smuggling 
could  be  carried  on  very  extensively  between  different 
countries  of  the  world. 

The  aerial  police  and  aerial  navigation  laws  could 
restrain  and  stop  such  unlawful  flying,  but  an  inter- 
national code  is  necessary  to  determine  their  rights. 

It  is  more  important,  however,  to  determine  and 
prescribe  the  places  at  which  foreign  aircraft  could 
cross  the  border  or  land  for  customs  inspection.  In 
these  regulations  should  also  be  incorporated  a  code 
of  international  law.  The  conditions  under  which  the 
fleet  should  pass  from  one  country  to  another  should 
be  prescribed.  Unless  this  was  done  it  would  be  pos- 
sible for  any  country  in  Europe,  operating  a  fleet  of 
10,000  or  more  commercial  aircraft,  to  convert  them 
into  bombers,  each  carrying  tons  of  inextinguishable 
incendiary  bombs,  which  could  destroy  a  city  like 
Paris,  Brussels,  or  London  within  a  few  hours.  A 
menace  of  this  last  possibility  is  so  great  that  the  lead- 
ing aeronautical  authorities  in  Paris  and  London  have 
asked  for  a  specified  written  code  of  aerial  navigation 
laws,  to  be  adopted  by  the  League  of  Nations.  In 
conformity  to  that  object  of  controlling  all  kinds  of 
aircraft,  the  British  Aerial  Transport  Committee  have 
drawn  up  a  draft  of  a  bill  for  the  regulation  of  aerial 
navigation.  The  principles  laid  down  in  this  bill  are 
so  universal  in  their  application  that  they  could  be 


AIR    TRAFFIC  237 

very  well  adopted  by  the  United  States  and  other 
nations  of  the  earth. 

Prior  to  the  war,  as  early  as  1905,  and  forever  after- 
ward, the  International  Aeronautical  Federation  was 
organizing  laws  regulating  aerial  navigation,  and  mak- 
ing it  the  chief  topic  of  discussion. 

In  1910  the  International  Convention  held  in  Paris 
drew  up  aerial  acts  restricting  navigation  over  for- 
bidden zones.  There  was  not  at  that  time  sufficient 
aircraft  navigating  to  make  these  regulations  as  im- 
portant as  they  are  at  the  present  time. 

Some  of  our  own  States  passed  some  absurd  laws  to 
restrict  aerial  navigation  to  their  own  States.  These 
were  absurd  because  of  the  fact  that  no  limits  should  be 
placed  on  the  interstate  flying  to  aircraft  because  most 
States  in  the  Union  could  be  flown  over  in  a  matter  of 
hours.  Federal  laws  only  are  sufficient  to  deal  with  this 
situation.  The  Department  of  Commerce,  which  has 
charge  of  both  registration  and  inspection,  is  the  logical 
department  to  have  charge  of  the  regulation  of  air- 
craft. 

In  1914  the  Department  of  Commerce  took  charge 
of  regulating  aircraft,  and  Dean  R.  Van  Kirk,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  was  fined  $550  for  disobeying  its  rules. 
These  regulations  should  aim  to  do  what  the  Motor 
Boat  Act  does  in  the  case  of  vessels  of  not  more  than 
sixty-five  feet  in  length.  Since  the  preponderance  of 
aircraft  shall  be  commercial,  it  is  absurd  to  delegate 
this  power  to  the  Division  of  Aeronautics. 

Herewith  follows  the  draft  of  the  bill  regulating 


238  AIRCRAFT 

aerial  navigation  submitted  to  the  British  House  of 
Parliament  and  later  submitted  to  the  Peace  Con- 
ference for  adoption  by  that  body  in  Paris. 

DJIAFT  OF  A  BILL 

FOB  THE   REGULATIONS   OF  AERIAL  NAVIGATION 

WHEREAS  the  sovereignty  and  rightful  jurisdiction  of  His  Majesty 
extends,  and  has  always  extended,  over  the  air  superincumbent  on  all 
parts  of  His  Majesty's  dominions  and  the  territorial  waters  adjacent 
thereto: 

And  whereas  it  is  expedient  to  regulate  the  navigation  of  aircraft, 
whether  British  or  foreign,  within  the  limits  of  such  jurisdiction,  and 
in  the  case  of  British  aircraft  to  regulate  the  navigation  thereof  both 
within  the  limits  of  such  jurisdiction  and  elsewhere: 

Be  it  therefore  enacted  by  the  King's  most  Excellent  Majesty,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal, 
and  Commons,  in  this  present  Parliament  assembled,  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  same,  as  follows: — 

POWER  TO  REGULATE  AERIAL  NAVIGATION 

1 — (1)  The  Secretary  of  State  may  by  order  regulate  or  prohibit 
aerial  navigation  by  British  or  foreign  aircraft  or  any  class  or  descrip- 
tion thereof  over  the  British  Islands  and  the  territorial  waters  adjacent 
thereto,  or  any  portions  thereof,  and  in  particular,  but  without  derogat- 
ing from  the  generality  of  the  above  provision,  may  by  any  such  order — 
(a)  prescribe  zones  (hereinafter  referred  to  as  prohibited  zones)  over 
which  it  shall  not  (except  as  otherwise  provided  by  the  order) 
be  lawful  for  aircraft  to  pass; 

(6)  prescribe  the  areas  within  which  aircraft  coming  from  any  place 
outside  the  British  Islands  shall  land,  and  the  other  conditions 
to  be  complied  with  by  such  aircraft; 

(c)  prohibit,  restrict,  or  regulate  the  carriage  in  aircraft  of  explosives, 

munitions  of  war,  carrier  pigeons,  photographic  and  radio- 
telegraphic  apparatus  and  any  other  article  the  carriage  of 
which  may  appear  to  the  Secretary  of  State  to  be  dangerous 
to  the  State  or  to  the  person  or  property  of  individuals; 

(d)  prohibit,  restrict,  or  regulate  the  carriage  in  aircraft  of  mer- 

chandise or  passengers; 

(e)  make  such  provision  as  may  appear  best  calculated  to  prevent 

damage  and  nuisance  being  caused  by  aircraft. 
(2)  If  any  person  does  anything  in  contravention  of  any  of  the  pro- 


AIR    TRAFFIC  239 

visions  of  any  such  order  he  shall  in  respect  of  each  offence  be  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanour: 

Provided  that  if  it  is  proved  that  the  contravention  was  committed 
with  the  intention  of  communicating  to  any  foreign  State  any  informa- 
tion, document,  sketch,  plan,  model,  or  knowledge  acquired,  made 
or  taken  or  with  the  intention  of  facilitating  the  communication  at  a 
future  time  of  information  to  a  foreign  State  any  information,  docu- 
ment, sketch,  plan,  model  or  knowledge  acquired,  made  or  taken  or 
with  the  intention  of  facilitating  the  communication  at  a  future  time 
of  information  to  a  foreign  State,  he  shall  be  guilty  of  a  felony,  and  on 
conviction  on  indictment  be  liable  to  penal  servitude  for  life  or  for  any 
term  not  less  than  three  years,  and  this  proviso  shall  have  effect  and 
be  construed  as  if  it  were  part  of  the  Official  Secrets  Act,  1889. 

(3)  Every  order  under  this  section  shall  have  effect  as  if  enacted  in 
this  Act,  but  as  soon  as  may  be  after  it  is  made  shall  be  laid  before 
each  House  of  Parliament,  and  if  an  address  is  presented  to  His  Majesty 
by  either  House  of  Parliament  within  the  next  subsequent  twenty-one 
days  on  which  that  House  has  sat  next  after  any  such  order  came  into 
force,  praying  that  the  order  may  be  annulled,  His  Majesty  may  annul 
the  order  and  it  shall  thenceforth  be  void,  without  prejudice  to  the 
validity  of  anything  previously  done  thereunder. 

QUALIFICATIONS  BY  OWNING  AIRCRAFT 

2 — An  aircraft  shall  not  be  deemed  to  be  a  British  aircraft  unless 
owned  wholly  by  persons  of  the  following  descriptions  (in  this  Act  re- 
ferred to  as  persons  qualified  to  be  owners  of  British  aircraft),  namely: — 
(a)  Natural-born  British  subjects; 

(6)  Persons  naturalised  by  or  in  pursuance  of  an  Act  of  Parliament 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  or  by  or  in  pursuance  of  an  Act  or 
Ordinance  of  the  proper  legislative  authority  in  a  British 
possession; 

(c)  Persons  made  denizens  by  letters  of  denization; 

(d)  Bodies  corporate  established  under  and  subject  to  the  laws  in 

force  in  some  part  of  His  Majesty's  dominions  and  having 
then*  principal  place  of  business  in  those  dominions,  [all  of 
whose  directors  and  shareholders  come  under  one  of  the  afore- 
mentioned heads] : 
Provided  that  any  person  who  either — 

(1)  being  a  natural-born  British  subject  has  taken  the  oath  of  alle- 

giance to  a  foreign  Sovereign  or  State  or  has  otherwise  become 
a  citizen  or  subject  of  a  foreign  State;  or 

(2)  has  been  naturalised  or  made  a  denizen  as  aforesaid; 

shall  not  be  qualified  to  be  an  owner  of  a  British  aircraft,  unless  after 
taking  the  said  oath  or  becoming  a  citizen  or  subject  of  a  foreign  State, 
or  on  or  after  being  naturalised  or  made  a  denizen  as  aforesaid,  he  has 


240  AIRCRAFT 

taken  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  His  Majesty  the  King  and  is  during 
the  time  he  is  owner  of  the  aircraft  either  resident  in  His  Majesty's 
dominions  or  a  partner  in  a  firm  actually  carrying  on  business  in  His 
Majesty's  dominions. 

REGISTRATION  OP  BRITISH  AIRCRAFT 

3 — (1)  Every  British  aircraft  shall  be  registered  in  such  manner  as 
the  Board  of  Trade  may  by  regulations  prescribe: 

Provided  that  an  aircraft  which  is  registered  under  the  law  of  any 
foreign  nation  as  an  aircraft  belonging  to  that  nation  shall  not  also 
be  registered  as  a  British  aircraft. 

(2)  Regulations  under  this  section  may  provide  for — 
(a)  the  appointment  and  duties  of  registrars; 

(6)  the  keeping  of  registers  and  the  particulars  to  be  entered 
therein; 

(c)  the  procedure  for  obtaining  the  registration  of  aircraft  by  the 

owners  thereof,  including  the  evidence  to  be  produced  as  to 
the  qualifications  of  applicants; 

(d)  the  issue,  form,  custody,  and  delivery  up  of  certificates  of 

registration; 

(e)  the  transfer  and  transmission  of  British  aircraft; 
(/)  the  fees  to  be  paid; 

(0)  the  application  with  the  necessary  modifications  for  any  of  the 
purposes  aforesaid  of  any  of  the  provisions  contained  in 
sections  twenty  to  twenty-two,  twenty-five,  twenty-seven 
to  thirty,  thirty-nine  to  forty-six  (except  so  far  as  those  sec- 
tions relate  to  mortgages),  forty-eight  to  fifty-three,  fifty- 
six,  fifty-seven,  sixty,  sixty-one,  and  sixty-four  of  the  Mer- 
chant Shipping  Act,  1894. 

(3)  If  an  aircraft  required  under  this  Act  to  be  registered  is  not  so 
registered  it  shall  not  be  recognised  as  a  British  aircraft,  and  shall  not 
be  entitled  to  any  of  the  benefits,  privileges,  or  advantages,  or  protection 
enjoyed  by  British  aircraft,  nor  to  assume  the  British  national  character, 
but  so  far  as  regards  the  payment  of  dues,  the  liability  to  fines  and  for- 
feitures, and  the  punishment  of  offences  committed  on  such  aircraft, 
or  by  any  person  belonging  to  it,  such  aircraft  shall  be  dealt  with  in 
the  same  manner  in  all  respects  as  if  she  were  a  recognised  British  air- 
craft. 

(4)  If  any  person  required  under  the  regulations  to  deliver  up  a 
certificate  of  registration  fails  to  do  so,  he  shall  be  guilty  of  an  offence 
under  this  Act. 

(5)  If  the  owner  or  pilot  of  an  aircraft  uses  or  attempts  to  use  a 
certificate,  of  registry  not  legally  granted  in  respect  of  the  aircraft,  he 
shall  in  respect  of  each  offence  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour. 


AIR    TRAFFIC  241 

CERTIFICATION  OP  AIRWORTHINESS 

4 — (1)  An  aircraft  (if  not  exempted  from  the  provisions  of  this  sec- 
tion by  the  regulations  made  thereunder)  shall  not  be  navigated  unless 
its  airworthiness  has  been  certified  in  accordance  with  regulations  made 
by  the  Board  of  Trade  and  the  certificate  of  airworthiness  in  respect 
thereof  is  for  the  time  being  in  force. 

(2)  The  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Trade  under  this  section  may, 
amongst  other  things — 

(a)  prescribe  the  conditions  to  be  fulfilled  (including  the  equipment 
to  be  carried)  and  the  tests  to  be  applied  in  determining  air- 
worthiness; 

(6)  provide  for  the  conduct  on  behalf  of  the  Board  of  Trade  by  other 
bodies  of  tests  and  examinations  of  aircraft; 

(c)  provide  for  the  issue  form,  custody,  and  delivery  up  of  certifi- 

cates of  airworthiness; 

(d)  provide  for  the  recognition  of  certificates  of  airworthiness  granted 

under  the  laws  of  any  British  possession  or  foreign  nation 
which  appear  to  the  Board  of  Trade  effective  for  ascertaining 
and  determining  airworthiness; 

(e)  prescribe  the  fees  to  be  paid  in  respect  of  the  grant  of  such  cer- 

tificates and  in  respect  of  applications  therefor; 
(/)   provide  for  the  exemption  from  the  provisions  of  this  section  of 
aircraft  of  any  particular  class  or  under  any  particular  circum- 
stances prescribed  by  the  regulations. 

(3)  The  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Trade  under  this  section  may 
in  the  prescribed  manner  require  the  owner  of  any  aircraft  in  respect 
of  which  a  certificate  of  airworthiness  has  been  issued  or  is  recognised 
under  those  regulations  to  submit  his  aircraft  at  any  tune  for  such 
tests  and  examinations  as  may  be  prescribed  for  determining  whether 
the  conditions  of  airworthiness  continue  to  be  fulfilled,  and  may  au- 
thorise endorsement  on  any  such  certificate  of  the  result  of  such  tests 
or  examinations,  and  the  cancellation  of  any  such  certificate,  or  the 
withdrawal  of  the  recognition  thereof,  on  its  being  found  that  such 
conditions  have  ceased  to  be  fulfilled,  or  on  failure  to  comply  with  any 
such  requirement  as  aforesaid. 

(4)  If  any  person  navigates  or  allows  to  be  navigated  any  aircraft 
(other  than  an  aircraft  of  an  exempted  class)  in  respect  of  which  a 
certificate  of  airworthiness  granted  or  recognised  under  this  section 
is  not  for  the  time  being  in  force,  or  navigates  or  allows  to  be  navigated 
an  aircraft  in  respect  of  which  such  a  certificate  is  for  the  time  being 
in  force,  knowing  that  the  prescribed  conditions  of  airworthiness  have 
ceased  to  be  fulfilled,  he  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour: 

Provided  that  this  sub-section  shall  not,  nor  shall  any  proceedings 
taken  thereunder,  affect  any  liability  of  any  such  person  to  be  pro- 
ceeded against  by  indictment  for  any  other  indictable  offence. 


242  AIRCRAFT 

CERTIFICATION  OF  OFFICERS 

5 — (1)  Every  aircraft  when  being  navigated  shall  be  provided  with 
a  navigator  duly  certificated  in  accordance  with  this  section,  and  also, 
in  such  cases  as  may  be  prescribed  by  regulations  made  by  the  Board 
of  Trade,  with  such  other  officers  so  certificated  as  may  be  prescribed. 

(2)  The  Board  of  Trade  may  make  regulations — 

(a)  as  to  the  issue  and  form  of  certificates  of  competency  under 
this  section; 

(6)  prescribing  the  cases  in  which  officers  other  than  the  navi- 
gator are  to  be  certificated,  and  the  number  and  character 
of  such  officers; 

(c)  prescribing  the  qualifications  to  be  possessed  for  obtaining  a 

certificate  as  navigator  or  as  officer  serving  in  any  other 
capacity; 

(d)  for  holding  examinations  of  candidates  for  certificates  and  for 

such  examinations  being  conducted  on  behalf  of  the  Board 
of  Trade  by  other  bodies; 

(e)  as  to  the  issue  of  new  certificates  in  place  of  certificates  which 

have  been  lost  or  destroyed; 

(/)  as  to  the  cancellation,  suspension,  endorsement  and  delivery 
up  of  certificates  of  competency; 

(0)  as  to  the  recognition  of  certificates  of  competency  issued  to 
navigators  and  other  officers  under  the  laws  of  any  British 
possession  or  foreign  nation  which  appear  to  the  Board 
effective  for  ascertaining  and  determining  their  competency; 

(h)  as  to  the  fees  to  be  paid  on  the  grant  of  a  certificate  and  by 
candidates  entering  for  examination. 

(3)  The  regulations  shall  provide  for  different  certificates  of  com- 
petency being  issued  in  respect  of  different  classes  of  aircraft,  and  a 
navigator  or  other  officer  shall  not  be  deemed  to  be  duly  certificated 
in  respect  of  an  aircraft  of  any  class  unless  he  is  the  holder  for  the  time 
being  of  a  valid  certificate  of  competency  under  this  section  in  respect 
of  that  class  of  craft,  and  of  a  grade  appropriate  to  his  station  in  the 
aircraft  or  of  a  higher  grade. 

(4)  If  any  person — 

(a)  navigates  or  allows  to  be  navigated  any  aircraft  not  provided 
with  a  duly  certificated  navigator,  and,  in  the  case  of  any 
aircraft  which  is  under  the  regulations  required  to  be  pro- 
vided with  other  certificated  officers,  without  such  other 
officers;  or, 

(6)  having  been  engaged  as  a  navigator  or  other  officer  required 
to  be  certificated,  navigates,  or  takes  part  in  the  navigation 
of,  an  aircraft  without  being  duly  certificated;  or 

(c)  employs  a  person  as  a  navigator  or  as  an  officer  in  contraven- 


AIR    TRAFFIC  243 

tion  of  this  section  without  ascertaining  that  the  person  so 
serving  is  duly  certificated; 
that  person  shall  be  guilty  of  an  offence  under  this  Act. 

COLLISION  REGULATIONS 

6 — (1)  The  Board  of  Trade  may  make  regulations  (hereinafter  re- 
ferred to  as  collision  regulations)  for  the  prevention  of  collisions  in  the 
air,  and  may  thereby  regulate  the  lights  to  be  carried  and  exhibited, 
the  fog  signals  to  be  carried  and  used,  and  the  steering  and  flying  rules 
to  be  observed  by  aircraft. 

(2)  All  owners  and  navigators  of  aircraft  shall  obey  the  collision 
regulations,  and  shall  not  carry  or  exhibit  any  other  lights  or  use  any 
other  fog  signals  than  such  as  are  required  by  those  regulations. 

(3)  If  an  infringement  of  the  collision  regulations  is  caused  by  the 
wilful  default  of  the  owner  or  navigator  of  the  aircraft,  the  owner  or 
navigator  of  the  aircraft  shall  in  respect  of  each  offence  be  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanour. 

(4)  If  any  damage  to  property  arises  from  the  non-observance  by 
any  aircraft  of  any  of  the  collision  regulations,  the  damage  shall  be 
deemed  to  have  been  occasioned  by  the  wilful  default  of  the  person 
in  charge  of  the  aircraft  at  the  time,  unless  it  is  shown  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  the  Court  that  the  circumstances  of  the  case  made  a  departure 
from  the  regulations  necessary. 

Alternative  for  Subsections  (3),  (4) 

(3)  If  an  infringement  of  the  collision  regulations  is  caused  by  the 
wilful  default  of  the  owner  or  navigator  of  an  aircraft  or  of  any  person 
in  charge  of  the  craft  at  the  time,  that  owner,  navigator  or  person 
shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour. 

(4)  If  the  infringement  of  the  collision  regulations  is  caused  by  any 
wilful  default,  the  wilful  default  shall  be  deemed  to  be  the  wilful  default 
of  the  navigator.     Provided  that  if  the  navigator  proves  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  Court  that  he  issued  proper  orders  for  the  observance 
and  used  due  diligence  to  enforce  the  observance  of  the  collision  regula- 
tions, and  that  the  whole  responsibility  for  the  infringement  in  question 
rested  with  some  other  person,  the  navigator  shall  be  exempt  from  any 
punishment  under  this  provision. 

(5)  The  collision  regulations  may  provide  for  the  inspection  of  air- 
craft for  the  purpose  of  seeing  that  the  craft  is  properly  provided  with 
lights  and  the  means  of  making  fog  signals  in  conformity  with  the  col- 
lision regulations  [and  the  seizure  and  detention  of  any  craft  not  so 
provided]. 

IDENTIFICATION  REGULATIONS 

7 — (1)  The  Board  of  Trade  may  make  regulations  providing  gener- 
ally for  facilitating  the  identification  of  aircraft,  and  in  particular  for 


244  AIRCRAFT 

determining  and  regulating  generally  the  size,  shape,  and  character  of 
the  identifying  marks  to  be  fixed  under  the  regulations,  and  the  mode 
in  which  they  are  to  be  affixed  and  rendered  easily  distinguishable 
[whether  by  night  or  day],  and  any  such  regulations  may  provide  for 
the  recognition  of  identifying  marks  complying  with  the  law  of  any 
British  possession  or  foreign  nation  which  appears  to  the  Board  of  Trade 
equally  effective  for  facilitating  the  identification  of  aircraft. 

(2)  The  regulations  under  this  section  may  provide  for  the  seizure 
and  detention  of  any  aircraft  which  is  not  marked  in  accordance  with 
those  regulations. 

(3)  If  any  person  navigates  or  allows  to  be  navigated  any  aircraft 
in  respect  of  which  any  of  the  requirements  of  the  regulations  made 
under  this  section  are  not  complied  with,  he  shall  be  guilty  of  an  offence 
under  this  Act  [qu.  he  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour]. 

AIRCRAFT  PAPERS 

8 — (1)  The  Board  of  Trade  may  make  regulations — 

(a)  requiring  logs  and  such  other  papers  as  may  be  prescribed  to 

be  carried  in  aircraft; 
(6)  prescribing  the  form  of  such  logs  and  other  papers; 

(c)  prescribing  the  entries  to  be  made  in  logs  and  the  time  at 

which  and  the  manner  in  which  such  entries  are  to  be  made; 

(d)  as  to  the  production,  inspection,  delivery  up,  and  preservation 

of  logs  and  other  papers. 

(2)  If  any  person  contravenes  any  of  the  provisions  of  the  regula- 
tions under  this  section  he  shall  be  guilty  of  an  offence  under  this  Act. 

SIGNALS  OF  DISTRESS  REGULATIONS 

9 — (1)  The  Board  of  Trade  may  make  regulations  as  to  what  signals 
shall  be  signals  of  distress  in  respect  of  the  various  classes  of  aircraft, 
and  the  signals  fixed  by  those  regulations  shall  be  deemed  to  be  signals 
of  distress. 

(2)  If  a  pilot  of  an  aircraft  uses  or  displays  or  causes  or  permits  any 
person  under  his  authority  to  use  or  display  any  of  those  signals  of  dis- 
tress except  in  the  case  of  an  aircraft  in  distress  such  of  those  signals 
as  are  appropriate  to  the  class  to  which  the  aircraft  belongs,  he  shall 
be  liable  to  pay  compensation  for  any  labour  undertaken,  risk  incurred, 
or  loss  sustained  in  consequence  of  any  person  having  been  deceived 
by  the  signal  [qu.  he  shall  be  guilty  of  an  offence  against  this  Act]. 

CUSTOMS  REGULATIONS 

10 — The  Commissioners  of  Customs  and  Excise  may,  subject  to  the 
consent  of  Treasury,  make  such  regulations  as  they  may  consider  neces- 
sary for  the  prevention  of  smuggling  and  safeguarding  the  interests  of 


AIR    TRAFFIC  245 

the  State  with  respect  to  the  importation  or  exportation  of  goods  in 
aircraft  into  or  from  the  British  Islands,  and  may  for  that  purpose 
apply,  with  the  necessary  modifications,  all  or  any  of  the  enactments 
relating  to  Customs,  and  may  by  those  regulations,  with  the  consent 
of  the  Secretary  of  State  and  upon  such  terms  as  to  payments  to  police 
authorities  as  he  may  sanction,  require  officers  of  police  to  perform  in 
respect  of  aircraft  all  or  any  of  the  duties  imposed  on  officers  of  Cus- 
toms and  may  for  that  purpose  confer  on  police  officers  all  or  any  of 
the  powers  possessed  by  officers  of  Customs. 

POST  OFFICE  REGULATIONS 

11 — The  Postmaster-General  may  make  regulations  with  respect  to 
the  conveyance  of  postal  packets  in  aircraft,  and  may  for  that  purpose 
apply,  with  the  necessary  modifications,  all  or  any  of  the  enactments 
relating  to  mail  ships  and  the  conveyance  of  postal  packets  in  ships. 

TRESPASS  AND  DAMAGES  FOE  INJURY  CAUSED  BY  AIRCRAFT 

12 — (1)  The  flight  of  an  aircraft  over  any  land  in  the  British  Islands 
shall  not  in  itself  be  deemed  to  be  trespass,  but  nothing  in  this  pro- 
vision shall  affect  the  rights  and  remedies  of  any  person  in  respect  of 
any  injury  to  property  or  person  caused  by  an  aircraft,  or  by  any  per- 
son carried  therein,  and  any  injury  caused  by  the  assembly  of  persons 
upon  the  landing  of  an  aircraft  shall  be  deemed  to  be  the  natural  and 
probable  consequence  of  such  landing. 

(2)  Where  injury  to  property  or  person  has  been  caused  by  an  air- 
craft, the  aircraft  may  be  seized  and  detained  until  the  owner  thereof 
has  given  security  to  the  satisfaction  of  a  justice  or  an  officer  of  police 
not  below  the  rank  of  inspector  to  pay  such  damages  as  may  be  awarded 
in  respect  of  the  injury  and  any  costs  incidental  to  the  proceedings. 

SALVAGE  OF  WRECKED  AIRCRAFT 

13 — (1)  If  any  person  finds,  whether  on  land  or  at  sea,  an  aircraft 
which  has  been  wrecked  or  lost,  he  shall  as  soon  as  may  be  communi- 
cate with  the  police  or  other  proper  authority,  and  the  police  or  au- 
thority shall  communicate  the  information  to  the  owner  of  the  air- 
craft if  he  can  be  ascertained. 

(2)  Where  any  such  aircraft  is  salved  then — 

(a)  if  the  owner  of  the  aircraft  does  not  abandon  his  right  to  the 
aircraft  he  shall  pay  to  any  persons  whose  services  have  con- 
tributed to  the  salvage  of  the  aircraft,  including  any  person 
or  authority  who  has  given  or  communicated  such  information 
as  aforesaid,  any  expenses  incurred  by  them  for  the  purpose 
and  five  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  aircraft  as  salved,  after  de- 
ducting from  that  amount  the  amount  of  the  expenses  of 


246  AIRCRAFT 

salvage  payable  by  the  owner,  to  be  distributed  among  those 
persons  in  such  manner  as,  in  default  of  agreement,  the  Court 
having  cognisance  of  the  case  may  think  just;  and 
(6)  if  the  owner  abandons  his  right  to  the  aircraft,  it  shall  be  sold 

or  otherwise  dealt  with  for  the  benefit  of  the  salvors. 
(3)  The  Board  of  Trade  may  make  regulations  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  this  section  into  effect,  and  in  particular  may  prescribe  what 
authority  shall  be  deemed  the  proper  authority,  the  manner  in  which 
communications  are  to  be  made,  the  manner  in  which  an  owner  may 
abandon  his  right  to  an  aircraft,  and  the  manner  in  which  aircraft  may 
be  sold  or  otherwise  dealt  with  for  the  benefit  of  the  salvors. 

SEARCH 

14 — (1)  If  any  officer  of  police  has  reason  for  suspecting  that  an 
offence  against  this  Act  or  any  regulations  made  thereunder  has  been 
or  is  being  committed  on  board  any  aircraft,  he  may  enter  and  search 
the  craft,  and  may  search  any  person  found  therein  or  who  may  have 
been  landed  therefrom: 

Provided  that  before  any  person  is  searched,  he  may  require  to  be 
taken  with  all  reasonable  despatch  before  a  justice,  who  shall,  if  he 
sees  no  reasonable  cause  for  search,  discharge  that  person,  but  if  other- 
wise direct  that  he  be  searched,  and  if  a  female  she  shall  not  be  searched 
by  any  other  than  a  female. 

(2)  If  any  person  assaults  or  obstructs  any  officer  of  police  in  search- 
ing an  aircraft,  or  in  searching  any  person  in  the  aircraft,  or  who  may 
have  landed  therefrom,  he  shall  be  guilty  of  an  offence  against  this 
Act,  and  if  any  officer  of  police  without  reasonable  ground  causes  any 
person  to  be  searched,  that  officer  shall  be  guilty  of  an  offence  against 
this  Act. 

SEIZURE  AND  DETENTION  OP  AIRCRAFT 

15 — The  Secretary  of  State  may  make  regulations  as  to  the  manner 
in  which  aircraft,  liable  to  seizure  and  detention  under  this  Act  may 
be  seized  and  detained. 

FORGERY,  ETC.,  OF  CERTIFICATES,  ETC. 

16 — If  any  person — 

(a)  forges  or  fraudulently  alters,  or  assists  in  forging  or  fraudulently 
altering  or  procures  to  be  forged  or  fraudulently  altered,  any 
certificate  of  registration,  airworthiness,  or  competency  under 
this  Act  or  any  log  or  other  papers  required  under  this  Act  to 
be  carried  in  an  aircraft;  or, 

(6)  makes  or  assists  in  making  or  procures  to  be  made  any  false  rep- 
resentation for  the  purpose  of  procuring  the  issue  of  a  certifi- 


AIR    TRAFFIC  247 

cate  of  airworthiness,  or  of  procuring  either  for  himself  or  for 
any  other  person  a  certificate  of  competency;  or 

(c)  fraudulently  uses  a  certificate  of  registration,  airworthiness,  or 

competency  which  has  been  forged,  altered,  cancelled,  or  sus- 
pended, or  to  which  he  is  not  entitled;  or 

(d)  fraudulently  lends  his  certificate  of  competency,  or  allows  it  to 

be  used  by  any  other  person;  or 

(e)  forges  or  fraudulently  alters  or  uses  or  assists  in  forging  01 

fraudulently  altering  or  using,  or  procures  to  be  forged  or 
fraudulently  altered  or  used,  or  allows  to  be  used  by  any 
other  person,  any  mark  for  identifying  an  aircraft, 
he  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour. 

PUNISHMENT  FOR  OFFENCES 

17 — (1)  An  offence  against  this  Act  declared  to  be  a  misdemeanour 
shall  be  punishable  with  a  fine  or  with  imprisonment  not  exceeding 
two  years,  with  or  without  hard  labour,  but  may,  instead  of  being  prose- 
cuted on  indictment  as  a  misdemeanour,  be  prosecuted  summarily  in 
manner  provided  by  the  Summary  Jurisdiction  Acts,  and  if  so  prose- 
cuted shall  be  punishable  only  with  imprisonment  for  a  term  not  ex- 
ceeding three  months,  with  or  without  hard  labour,  or  with  a  fine  not 
exceeding  one  hundred  pounds,  or  with  both  such  imprisonment  and 
fine. 

(2)  An  offence  against  this  Act  not  declared  to  be  a  misdemeanour 
shall  be  prosecuted  summarily  in  manner  provided  by  the  Summary 
Jurisdiction  Acts,  and  shall  be  punishable  with  a  fine  not  exceeding 
one  hundred  pounds  or  with  imprisonment  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
three  months,  with  or  without  hard  labour,  or  with  both  such  imprison- 
ment and  fine. 

(3)  Where  a  person  is  beneficially  interested  otherwise  than  by  way 
of  mortgage  in  any  aircraft  registered  in  the  name  of  some  other  per- 
son as  owner,  the  person  so  interested  shall  as  well  as  the  registered 
owner  be  subject  to  all  the  pecuniary  penalties  by  this  Act  imposed 
on  owners  of  aircraft,  so  nevertheless  that  pro3eedings  may  be  taken 
for  the  enforcement  of  any  such  penalties  against  both  or  either  of  the 
aforesaid  parties  with  or  without  joining  the  other  of  them. 

PROVISIONS  AS  TO  PUBLIC  FOREIGN  AIRCRAFT 

18 — It  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  aircraft  in  the  service  of  any 
foreign  State  to  pass  over  or  land  on  any  part  of  the  British  Islands  or 
the  territorial  waters  adjacent  thereto  except  on  the  invitation  of  His 
Majesty  [or  of  some  department  of  His  Majesty's  Government],  and 
any  person  carried  in  an  aircraft  contravening  the  provisions  of  this  sec- 
tion shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour,  and,  unless  the  Secretary  of  State 


248  AIRCRAFT 

otherwise  orders,  the  aircraft  may  be  seized,  detained,  and  searched, 
and  the  persons  carried  therein  or  landed  therefrom  may  be  searched 
in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this  Act. 

POWER  TO  FIRE  ON  AIRCRAFT  FLYING  OVER  PROHIBITED  AREAS 

19 — If  any  aircraft  flies  or  attempts  to  fly  over  any  prohibited  zone 
or  being  an  aircraft  in  the  service  of  a  foreign  State  flies  or  attempts 
to  fly  over  any  part  of  the  British  Islands  or  the  territorial  waters  ad- 
jacent thereto  in  contravention  of  this  Act,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  any 
commissioned  officer  in  His  Majesty's  Navy,  Army,  or  Marines  [not 
below  the  rank  of  ],  to  cause  a  gun  to  be  fired  as  a  signal, 

and  if,  after  such  gun  has  been  fired,  the  aircraft  fails  to  respond  to 
the  signal  by  complying  with  such  regulations  as  may  be  made  by  the 
Secretary  of  State  under  this  Act  for  dealing  with  the  case,  to  fire  at 
such  aircraft,  and  any  such  commissioned  officer  and  every  other  per- 
son acting  in  his  aid  or  by  his  direction  shall  be  and  is  hereby  indemni- 
fied or  discharged  from  any  indictment,  penalty  or  other  proceeding 
for  so  doing. 

JURISDICTION 

20 — (1)  For  the  purpose  of  giving  jurisdiction  under  this  Act  every 
offence  shall  be  deemed  to  have  been  committed  in  the  place  in  or  over 
which  the  same  was  actually  committed  or  in  any  place  in  which  the 
offender  may  be. 

(2)  Where  any  person,  being  a  British  subject,  is  charged  with  hav- 
ing committed  any  offence  on  board  any  British  aircraft  in  tha  air, 
over  the  high  seas,  or  over  any  foreign  country,  or  on  board  any  foreign 
aircraft  to  which  he  does  not  belong,  or  not  being  a  British  subject  is 
charged  with  having  committed  any  offence  on  board  any  British  air- 
craft in  the  air  over  the  high  seas,  and  that  person  is  found  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  any  Court  in  His  Majesty's  dominions  which  would  have 
had  cognisance  of  the  offence  if  it  had  been  committed  on  board  a  Brit- 
ish aircraft  within  the  limits  of  its  ordinary  jurisdiction,  that  Court 
shall  have  jurisdiction  to  try  the  offence  as  if  it  had  been  so  committed. 

(3)  Where  any  offence  is  committed  in  any  aircraft  in  the  air  over 
the  British  Islands  or  in  the  territorial  waters  adjacent  thereto,  the 
offence  shall  be  deemed  to  have  been  committed  either  in  the  place  in 
which  the  same  was  actually  committed  or  in  any  place  in  which  the 
offender  may  be. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  PROVISIONS  AS  TO  BRITISH  AIRCRAFT 

21 — (1)  If  any  person  assumes  the  British  national  character  on  an 
aircraft  owned  in  whole  or  in  part  by  any  person  not  qualified  to  own 
a  British  aircraft  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  aircraft  appear  to  be  a 


AIR    TRAFFIC  249 

British  aircraft,  the  aircraft  shall  be  liable  to  be  seized  and  detained 
under  this  Act  unless  the  assumption  has  been  made  for  the  purpose 
of  escaping  capture  by  an  enemy  or  by  any  person  in  the  exercise  of 
some  belligerent  right. 

(2)  If  the  owner  or  pilot  of  a  British  aircraft  does  anything  or  per- 
mits anything  to  be  done,  or  carries  or  permits  to  be  carried  any  papers 
or  documents,  with  intent  to  conceal  the  British  character  of  the  air- 
craft or  of  any  person  entitled  under  this  Act  to  inquire  into  the  same, 
or  with  intent  to  assume  a  foreign  character,  or  with  intent  to  deceive 
any  person  so  entitled  as  aforesaid,  the  aircraft  shall  be  liable  to  be 
seized  and  detained  under  this  Act,  and  the  pilot,  if  he  commits  or  is 
privy  to  the  commission  of  the  offence,  shall  hi  respect  of  each  offence 
be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour. 

(3)  If  an  unqualified  person  acquires  as  owner,  otherwise  than  in 
accordance  with  this  Act  or  the  regulations  made  thereunder,  any  in- 
terest, either  legal  or  beneficial,  in  an  aircraft  assuming  the  British 
character,  that  interest  shall  be  subject  to  forfeiture. 


APPLICATION  OF  FOREIGN  ENLISTMENT  ACT 

22 — The  Foreign  Enlistment  Act,  1870,  shall  have  effect  as  if  the  ex- 
pression "ship"  included  any  description  of  aircraft,  and  as  if  the 
expression  "equipping"  in  relation  to  an  aircraft  included,  in  addition 
to  the  things  specifically  mentioned  in  that  Act,  any  other  thing  which 
is  used  in  or  about  an  aircraft  for  the  purpose  of  fitting  or  adapting 
her  for  aerial  navigation. 

EXTENT  OP  ACT 

23 — (1)  The  provisions  of  this  Act  and  of  the  regulations  made 
thereunder  shall,  except  so  far  as  they  are  expressly  limited  to  the 
British  Islands  and  the  territorial  waters  adjacent  thereto,  apply  to — 

(a)  all  British  aircraft  wheresoever  they  may  be;  and 

(6)  all  foreign  aircraft  whilst  in  or  over  any  part  of  His  Majesty's 

dominions  and  the  territorial  waters  adjacent  thereto; 
and  in  any  case  arising  in  a  British  Court  concerning  matters  arising 
within  British  jurisdiction  foreign  aircraft  shall,  so  far  as  respects  such 
provisions,  be  treated  as  if  they  were  British  aircraft; 

Provided  that  no  such  provisions,  except  those  relating  to  the  regis- 
tration of  aircraft  and  those  contained  in  collision  regulations,  aircraft 
papers,  regulations,  and  signals  of  distress  regulations,  shall  apply  to 
aircraft  whilst  in  or  over  any  part  of  His  Majesty's  dominions  outside 
the  British  Islands  or  in  or  over  the  territorial  waters  adjacent  to  any 
such  part. 

(2)  Subject  as  aforesaid,  nothing  in  this  Act  shall  be  construed  as 
limiting  the  power  of  the  legislature  of  any  British  possession  outside 


250  AIRCRAFT 

the  British  Islands  to  make  provision  in  relation  to  the  possession  and 
the  territorial  waters  adjacent  thereto  with  respect  to  any  of  the 
matters  dealt  with  by  this  Act. 

EXEMPTION  OF  GOVERNMENT  AIRCRAFT 

24 — This  Act  shall  not,  except  so  far  as  it  may  be  applied  by  Order 
in  Council,  apply  to  aircraft  belonging  to  His  Majesty. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  TRANSATLANTIC  FLIGHT 
THE    NC'S — THE    LOSS    OF    THE    C-5 — READ'S    STORY 

BELLINGER'S  STORY — THE  GREAT  NAVAL  FLIGHT — 
HAWKER'S  STORY — ALCOCK'S  STORY — THE  R-34 

EVER  since  the  Wright  brothers  demonstrated  that 
a  heavier-than-air  machine  could  rise  from  the  ground 
with  its  own  power  and  carry  a  man  aloft  through  the 
air,  aeronautical  engineers  have  been  ambitious  to 
build  an  aircraft  that  would  fly  across  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  from  the  Old  World  to  the  New,  or  from  the  New 
World  to  the  Old.  Exactly  one  hundred  years  to  the 
very  month  after  the  first  steam-driven  vessel  crossed 
the  Atlantic,  from  Savannah,  Georgia,  to  England, 
NC-4,  U.  S.  naval  flying-boat,  flew  from  Rockaway, 
Long  Island,  via  Halifax,  Trepassey  Bay,  Newfound- 
land, Azores,  Lisbon,  Portugal,  Ferrol,  Spain,  to  Plym- 
outh, England;  and  on  June  13  the  "Vimy "-Bomber, 
built  by  the  Vickers,  Limited,  England,  made  a  non- 
stop flight  from  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  to  Clefden, 
Galway,  Ireland;  and  on  July  2  the  R-34,  the  British 
rigid  dirigible,  flew  from  East  Fortune,  near  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  via  Newfoundland  to  Mineola,  Long  Island, 
in  108  hours  and  12  minutes;  and  it  made  the  return 
trip  to  Pulham,  Norfolk,  England,  in  75  hours  and  3 
minutes.  The  NC-4  flew  from  Trepassey  Bay  to  Plym- 

251 


252  AIRCRAFT 

outh  in  59  hours  and  56  minutes,  and  the  Vickers 
Bomber  made  its  flight  in  16  hours  and  12  minutes. 
The  distance  of  the  iirst  flight  from  Trepassey  Bay  to 
Plymouth  was  about  2,700  miles;  the  distance  of  the 
one  taken  by  the  Vickers  was  1,950  miles.  The  dis- 
tance covered  by  the  R-34  was  3,200  miles  each  way. 

On  May  16,  1919,  three  U.  S.  naval  seaplanes,  the 
NC-1,  NC-3,  and  NC-4,  set  out  to  fly  from  Trepassey 
Bay,  Newfoundland,  to  the  Azores.  The  NC-4  alighted 
at  Horta  the  next  day.  The  NC-1,  under  command  of 
Lieutenant-Commander  Bellinger,  did  not  quite  com- 
plete the  flight  owing  to  fog,  and  after  the  crew  was 
rescued  by  a  destroyer,  had  to  be  towed  into  Horta, 
where  it  sank.  The  NC-3,  with  Commander  Towers, 
was  lost  for  48  hours  in  the  fog,  but  finally  taxied  to 
Porta  Delgada  on  its  own  power.  Owing  to  the 
damaged  condition  of  the  boat,  it  could  proceed  no 
farther.  On  May  16  Commander  Read  flew  the  NC-4 
to  Porta  Delgada;  on  May  27  from  there  to  Lisbon; 
on  May  30  to  Ferrol,  Spain;  and  on  May  31,  to  Plym- 
outh, England,  thus  completing  the  transatlantic  flight 
in  46  flying  hours. 

On  May  18  Harry  Hawker  and  Mackenzie  Grieve 
flew  from  St.  John's  in  a  single-motored  Sopwith,  and 
after  15  hours  in  the  air  had  to  alight  on  the  ocean, 
1,000  miles  east  of  where  they  started  and  900  miles 
from  their  goal. 

On  June  14  Captain  John  Alcock  and  Lieutenant 
Arthur  W.  Brown,  in  a  bimotored  Vickers  aeroplane, 
flew  from  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  to  Galway,  Ire- 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    253 

land,  without  stopping,  through  fog  and  sleet  and  rain, 
in  16  hours  and  12  minutes. 

PREVIOUS  ATTEMPTS  TO  FLY  ACROSS  THE  ATLANTIC 

The  first  actual  attempt  to  fly  across  the  North 
Atlantic  from  America  to  England  was  made  by  Walter 
Wellman,  in  1910,  when  he  set  sail  in  the  rigid  dirigi- 
ble America  from  Atlantic  City.  The  engines  were 
not  strong  enough  to  force  the  huge  gas-bag  against 
the  breeze,  and  it  was  blown  out  of  its  course  and  came 
down  in  the  sea,  1,000  miles  off  Cape  Hatteras,  where 
the  balloon  was  abandoned  and  the  crew  was  picked  up. 

During  a  test  flight  of  a  second  dirigible  called  the 
Akron,  on  July  2,  1912,  Mr.  Melvin  Vaniman  and  four 
of  his  crew  were  killed  by  an  explosion  of  the  hydrogen 
gas  with  which  the  gas-bag  was  inflated. 

In  1894  Glenn  L.  Curtiss,  through  the  generosity  of 
Mr.  Rodman  Wanamaker,  constructed  a  flying-boat, 
in  which  Captain  Porte  was  to  fly  across  the  Atlantic. 
The  seaplane  was  completed  and  tests  were  being  made 
when  the  war  broke  out,  and  the  enterprise  had  to  be 
abandoned.  Nevertheless,  the  seaplane  did  go  to 
England,  but  in  the  hull  of  another  boat.  There  it 
performed  excellent  service  for  the  British  Govern- 
ment hunting  Hun  submarines. 

As  soon  as  the  armistice  was  signed,  France,  Eng- 
land, and  the  United  States  began  to  lay  plans  to  use 
some  of  the  airships  designed  for  war  for  the  purpose 
of  flying  across  the  Atlantic.  Captain  Coli,  who  flew 
from  France  across  the  Mediterranean,  started  from 


254  AIRCRAFT 

Paris  to  fly  to  Dakar  on  the  extreme  point  of  Cape 
Verde,  and  from  there  across  the  South  Atlantic  to 
Pernambuco,  Brazil.  Owing  to  engine  trouble,  he 
did  not  reach  Dakar. 

THE  NC's 

The  giant  navy  flying-boats  built  for  the  trans- 
atlantic flight  were  not  only  of  extraordinary  size 
but  of  unusual  construction,  and  represent  a  wholly 
original  American  development.  The  design  was  con- 
ceived in  the  fall  of  1917  by  Rear-Admiral  D.  W. 
Taylor,  Chief  Constructor  of  the  Navy,  who  had  in 
mind  the  development  of  a  seaplane  of  the  maximum 
size,  radius  of  action,  and  weight-carrying  ability,  for 
use  in  putting  down  the  submarine  menace.  Had  the 
German  submarines  gained  the  upper  hand  in  1918, 
the  war  would  still  be  going  on,  and  these  great  flying- 
boats  would  be  produced  in  quantity  and  flown  across 
the  Atlantic  to  the  centres  of  submarine  activity. 

The  first  of  the  type  was  completed  and  given  her 
trials  in  October,  1918,  and  since  that  time  three  more 
have  been  completed. 

The  flying-boats  were  designated  NC,  the  N  for 
navy,  and  C  for  Curtiss,  indicating  the  joint  produc- 
tion of  the  navy  and  the  Curtiss  Engineering  Cor- 
poration. Being  designed  for  war  service,  the  boats 
are  not  at  all  freak  machines  put  together  to  perform 
the  single  feat  of  a  record-breaking  flight,  but  are  roomy 
and  comfortable  craft,  designed  and  built  in  accor- 
dance with  standard  navy  practice.  The  NC-1  has 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    255 

been  in  service  seven  months,  and  received  rough 
handling  when  new  pilots  for  the  other  NC  boats  were 
trained  on  her,  but  is  still  in  good  condition. 

The  term  flying-boat  is  used  for  the  NC  type  be- 
cause it  is  actually  a  stout  seaworthy  boat,  that  ploughs 
through  rough  water  up  to  a  speed  of  60  miles  per 
hour,  and  then  takes  to  the  air  and  flies  at  a  speed  of 
over  90  miles  per  hour. 

The  hull  or  boat  proper  is  45  feet  long  by  10  feet 
beam.  The  bottom  is  a  double  plank  Vee,  with  a 
single  step  somewhat  similar  in  form  to  the  standard 
navy  pontoon  for  smaller  seaplanes.  Five  bulkheads 
divide  the  hull  into  six  water-tight  compartments  with 
water-tight  doors  in  a  wing  passage  for  access.  The 
forward  compartment  has  a  cockpit  for  the  lookout 
and  navigator.  In  the  next  compartment  are  seated 
side  by  side  the  principal  pilot  or  aviator  and  his 
assistant.  Next  comes  a  compartment  for  the  mem- 
bers of  the  crew  off  watch  to  rest  or  sleep.  After  this 
there  are  two  compartments  containing  the  gasoline- 
tanks  (where  a  mechanician  is  in  attendance)  and 
finally  a  space  for  the  radio  man  and  his  apparatus. 
The  minimum  crew  consists  of  five  men,  but  normally 
a  relief  crew  could  be  carried  in  addition.  To  guar- 
antee water-tightness  and  yet  keep  the  planking  thin, 
there  is  a  layfer  of  muslin  set  in  marine  glue  between 
the  two  plies  of  planking. 

The  wings  have  a  total  area  of  2,380  square  feet. 
The  ribs  of  the  wing  are  12  feet  long,  but  only  weigh 
26  ounces  each. 


256  AIRCRAFT 

The  tail  in  this  craft  is  unique  and  resembles  no 
other  flying  machine  or  animal.  The  tail  surface  is 
made  up  as  a  biplane,  which  is  of  the  general  appear- 
ance and  size  of  the  usual  aeroplane.  Indeed,  this  tail 
of  over  500  square  feet  area  is  twice  as  large  as  the 
single-seater  fighting-aeroplanes  used  by  the  army. 

ENGINES 

The  four  Liberty  engines  which  drive  the  boat  are 
mounted  between  the  wings.  At  400  brake  horse- 
power per  engine,  the  maximum  power  is  1,600 
horse-power,  or  with  the  full  load  of  28,000  pounds, 
17.5  pounds  carried  per  horse-power.  One  engine  is 
mounted  with  a  tractor  propeller  on  each  side  of  the 
centre  line,  and  on  the  centre  line  the  two  remaining 
engines  are  mounted  in  tandem,  or  one  behind  the 
other.  The  front  engine  has  a  tractor  propeller,  and 
the  rear  engine  a  pusher  propeller.  This  arrangement 
of  engines  is  novel,  and  has  the  advantage  of  concen- 
trating weights  near  the  centre  of  the  boat  so  that  it 
can  be  manoeuvred  more  easily  in  the  air. 

CONTROLS 

The  steering  and  control  in  the  air  are  arranged  in 
principle  exactly  as  in  a  small  aeroplane,  but  it  was  not 
an  easy  problem  to  arrange  that  this  14-ton  boat  could 
be  handled  by  one  man  of  only  normal  strength.  To 
insure  easy  operation,  each  control  surface  was  care- 
fully balanced  in  accordance  with  experiments  made 
in  a  wind-tunnel  on  a  model  of  it.  The  operating 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    257 

cables  were  run  through  ball-bearing  pulleys,  and  all 
avoidable  friction  eliminated.  Finally,  the  entire 
craft  was  so  balanced  that  the  centre  of  gravity  of  all 
weights  came  at  the  resultant  centre  of  lift  of  all  lift- 
ing surfaces,  and  the  tail  surfaces  so  adjusted  that 
the  machine  would  be  inherently  stable  in  flight.  As 
a  result,  the  boat  will  fly  herself  and  will  continue  on 
her  course  without  the  constant  attention  of  the  pilot. 
However,  if  he  wishes  to  change  course,  a  slight  pres- 
sure of  his  controls  is  enough  to  swing  the  boat 
promptly.  There  is  provision,  however,  for  an  as- 
sistant to  the  pilot  to  relieve  him  in  rough  air  if  he 
becomes  fatigued,  or  wishes  to  leave  his  post  to  move 
about  the  boat. 

In  the  design  of  the  metal  fittings  to  reduce  the 
amount  of  metal  needed  a  special  alloy  steel  of  150,000 
pounds  per  square  inch  tensile  strength  was  used. 
To  increase  bearing  areas,  bolts  and  pins  are  made  of 
large  diameter  but  hollow. 

A  feature  that  is  new  in  this  boat  is  the  use  of  welded 
aluminum  tanks  for  gasoline.  There  are  nine  200- 
gallon  tanks  made  of  sheet  aluminum  with  welded 
seams.  Each  tank  weighs  but  70  pounds,  or  .35 
pounds  per  gallon  of  contents,  about  one-half  the  weight 
of  the  usual  sheet-steel  or  copper  tank. 

Loaded,  the  machine  weighs  28,000  pounds,  and 
when  empty,  but  including  radiator,  water,  and  fixed 
instruments  and  equipment,  15,874  pounds.  The 
useful  load  available  for  crew,  supplies,  and  fuel  is, 
therefore,  12,126  pounds.  This  useful  load  may  be 


258  AIRCRAFT 

put  into  fuel,  freight,  etc.,  in  any  proportion  desired. 
For  an  endurance  flight  there  would  be  a  crew  of 
5  men  (850  pounds),  radio  and  radiotelephone  (220 
pounds),  food  and  water,  signal-lights,  spare  parts, 
and  miscellaneous  equipment  (524  pounds),  oil  (750 
pounds),  gasoline,  9,650  pounds.  This  should  suffice 
for  a  flight  of  1,400  sea  miles.  The  radio  outfit  is  of 
sufficient  power  to  communicate  with  ships  200  miles 
away.  The  radiotelephone  would  be  used  to  talk 
to  other  planes  in  the  formation  or  within  25  miles. 

The  principal  dimensions  and  characteristics  of  the 
NC  type  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

Engines 4  Liberty 

Power 1,600 

Wing  span 126  upper 

94  feet  lower 

Length 68  feet  5ji  inches 

Height 24  feet  5  J^  inches 

Weight,  empty 15,874  Ibs. 

Weight,  loaded 28,000  Ibs. 

Useful  load 12,126  Ibs. 

Gravity-tank 91  gals,  capacity 

Fuel-tanks 1,800  gals,  capacity 

Oil-tanks 160  gals,  capacity 

FIRST  AERIAL  STOWAWAY 

In  connection  with  the  trials  of  NC-1,  the  first  of 
the  type  completed,  two  significant  happenings  are 
recorded. 

The  first  concerns  the  first  aerial  stowaway.  At 
Rockaway  Naval  Air-Station  arrangements  were  made 
to  take  50  men  for  a  flight  to  establish  a  world's  rec- 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    259 

ord;  the  50  men  were  assembled,  weighed,  and  care- 
fully packed  in  the  boat.  The  flight  was  successfully 
made,  and  upon  return  to  the  beach  the  officer-in-charge 
counted  the  men  again  as  they  came  ashore.  He  was 
astonished  to  find  there  were  51.  An  investigation 
was  made  at  once,  which  revealed  the  fact  that  a 
mechanic  who  had  been  working  on  the  boat  before 
the  flight  had  hidden  in  the  hull  for  over  an  hour 
before  the  actual  departure  in  order  to  go  on  the  flight. 
This  man  is,  no  doubt,  the  world's  first  aerial  stow- 
away. 

RECORD  OF  THE  FLIGHT 

The  NC-1,  3,  and  4  left  Rockaway  at  10  A.  M.  on 
May  8  for  Halifax.  The  NC-4,  owing  to  engine 
trouble,  had  to  land  at  sea  near  Chatham,  Mass.; 
the  other  two  continued  on  their  way,  and  reached 
Halifax  at  7.55  p.  M.  (6.55  New  York  time)  on  May  8; 
after  waiting  until  the  morning  of  May  10,  the  NC-1 
and  3  left  Halifax  at  8.44  A.  M.  After  travelling  38 
miles,  the  NC-3  was  forced  to  return  to  Halifax  due  to 
the  cracking  of  a  propeller.  The  NC-1  arrived  at 
Trepassey  Bay  on  May  10  at  3.41  p.  M.  The  NC-3 
arrived  at  7.31  p.  M. 

After  being  refitted  with  a  new  engine  the  NC-4  left 
Chatham  at  9.25  A.  M.,  Wednesday,  May  14,  and  ar- 
rived at  Halifax  at  2.05  p.  M.  It  left  there  on  Thursday, 
May  15,  at  9.52  A.  M.,  and  arrived  at  Trepassey  Bay  at 
6.37  P.  M.  (New  York  time  5.37  p.  M.). 

On  the  morning  of  Friday,  May  16,  the  three  flying- 
boats  left  Trepassey  Bay  at  6.05  p.  M.  It  was  a  clear 


260  AIRCRAFT 

moonlight  night,  and  as  21  United  States  destroyers 
were  stationed  along  the  route  from  North  latitude 
46-17  to  39-40,  the  airships  were  in  communication 
with  the  fleet  all  the  way  over. 

Because  of  a  thick  fog  which  obtained  near  the 
Azores  the  NC-4  landed  at  Horta  of  the  eastern  group 
at  9.20  A.  M.,  just  13  hours  and  18  minutes  after  start- 
ing. The  NC-1  landed  at  sea  and  sank,  and  the  NC-3, 
which  flew  out  of  its  course,  landed  at  Ponta  Delgada. 

TIME  OP  NC-4's  FLIGHT  TO  LISBON 

The  NC-4  in  its  flight  from  Trepassey  to  Lisbon 
covered  a  distance  of  2,150  nautical  miles  in  26.47 
hours'  actual  flying  time,  or  at  an  average  speed  of 
80.3  nautical  miles.  The  three  seaplanes  left  Tre- 
passey at  sunset  on  May  16,  and  the  NC-4  reached 
Lisbon  soon  after  noon  on  May  27,  the  eleventh  day 
after  its  "hop"  from  Newfoundland.  Its  record  in 
detail  is  as  follows: 

Distance,  Speed, 

Course  Date  Knots    Time      Knots 

Rockaway-Chatham    (forced 

landing  about  100  miles  off 

Chatham) May   8  300  5.45  52 

Chatham-Halifax May  14  320  3.51  85 

Halifax-Trepassey May  15  460  6.20  72.6 

Trepassey-Horta May  16-17  1,200  15. 18  78.4 

Horta-Ponta  Delgada May  20  150  1.45  86.7 

Ponta  Delgada-Lisbon May  27  800  9.44  82.1 

Trepassey-Lisbon 2,150  26.47  80.3 

The  total  flying  time  from  Rockaway,  N.  Y.,  to 
Lisbon,  Spain,  was  42.43. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    261 

The  fastest  previous  passage  of  the  Atlantic  was 
made  by  the  giant  Cunard  liner  Mauretania,  which 
made  the  trip  from  Liverpool  to  New  York  in  four 
days,  14  hours,  and  27  minutes. 

Here  is  the  log  of  the  last  leg  of  the  transatlantic 
flight,  completed  with  the  arrival  of  the  NC-4  at 
Plymouth,  based  on  wireless  and  cabled  despatches 
received  at  the  Navy  Department. 

1.21  A.  M.,  from  Plymouth:  "NC-4  left  Lisbon  6.23 
(New  York  2.23  A.  M.),  May  30,  and  landed  Mondego 
River,  getting  underway  and  proceeding  to  Ferrol, 
where  landed  at  16.46  (12.45  New  York  time).    De- 
stroyers standing  by  NC-4;  will  proceed  to  Plymouth 
to-morrow  if  weather  permits." 

6.50  A.  M. — From  Admiral  Knapp  at  London:  "From 
the  Harding:  <U.  S.  S.  Gridley  to  U.  S.  S.  Rochester, 
NC-4  expects  to  leave  Ferrol  for  Plymouth  at  6  A.  M. 
to-morrow  morning,  signed  Read.'" 

7.22  A.  M. — From  Admiral  Knapp  at  London:  "NC-4 
left  Ferrol  at  06.27  (2.27  A.  M.  New  York  time)." 

8.11  A.  M. — From  Admiral  Knapp  at  London:  "Fol- 
lowing received  from  U.  S.  S.  George  Washington: 
'From  U.%S.  S.  Stockton,  NC-4  passed  station  two  at 
,07.43  (3.43  A.  M.  New  York  time).'" 

9.24  A.  M. — From  Admiral  Knapp  at  London:  "NC-4 
passed  station  four  at  09.06  (5.06  New  York  time)." 

9.50  A.M. — From  Admiral  Knapp:  "NC-4  arrived 
at  Plymouth  at  14.26.31,  English  civil  time  (9.26  A.  M. 
New  York  time)." 

11.56  A.  M.— From  Admiral  Knapp:  "NC-4  passed 
Mengam  at  12.13  local  time." 


262  AIRCRAFT 

3.17  p.  M. — From  Admiral  Plunkett,  commander  of 
destroyer  force  at  Plymouth:  "NC-4  arrived  at 
Plymouth  13.24  (9.24  A.  M.  New  York  time)  in  per- 
fect condition.  Joint  mission  of  seaplane  division  and 
destroyer  force  accomplished.  Regret  loss  of  NC-1 
and  damage  to  NC-3;  nevertheless,  information  of 
utmost  value  gained  thereby.  Has  department  any 
further  instructions?" 

The  members  of  the  crews  were: 

NC-1 — Commanding  officer,  Lieutenant-Commander 
P.  N.  L.  Bellinger;  pilots,  Lieutenant-Commander  M. 
A.  Mitscher  and  Lieutenant  L.  T.  Barin;  radio  oper- 
ator, Lieutenant  Harry  Sadenwater;  engineer,  Chief 
Machinist's  Mate  C.  I.  Kesler. 

NC-3 — Commanding  officer,  Commander  John  H. 
Towers;  pilots,  Commander  H.  C.  Richardson  and 
Lieutenant  David  H.  McCullough;  radio  operator, 
Lieutenant-Commander  R.  A.  Lavender;  engineer, 
Machinist  L.  R.  Moore. 

NC-4 — Commanding  officer,  Lieutenant-Commander 
A.  C.  Read;  pilots,  Lieutenants  E.  F.  Stone  and  Walter 
Hinton;  radio  operator,  Ensign  H.  C.  Rodd;  engineer, 
Chief  Machinist's  Mate  E.  S.  Rhodes. 

THE  Loss  OF  C-5  NAVAL  BLIMP 

The  C-5  naval  dirigible,  called  "  Blimp,"  was  192 
feet  long,  43  feet  wide,  46  feet  high,  and  contained 
180,000  cubic  feet  of  hydrogen.  It  was  driven  by  two 
150  horse-power  union  aero  engines. 

It  left  Montauk  Point  early  Wednesday  morning, 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    263 

May  14,  and  was  in  the  air  continuously  for  25  hours 
and  45  minutes. 

It  arrived  at  Halifax  at  9.50  A.  M.,  Thursday  morn- 
ing, New  York  time. 

On  Thursday  afternoon  the  C-5  burst  from  her 
moorings  in  a  gale  and  was  swept  to  sea.  Lieutenant 
Little  was  hurt  in  an  attempt  to  pull  the  rip  cord  of 
the  dirigible  in  order  to  deflate  her.  The  cord  broke, 
and  he  received  a  sprain  when  he  jumped  from  the 
C-5  as  she  began  to  rise. 

The  C-5  arrived  at  the  Pleasantville  base,  near  St. 
John's,  after  being  in  the  air  continuously  for  25 
hours  and  40  minutes.  A  perfect  landing  was  made 
within  the  narrow  confines  of  the  old  cricket-field, 
which  was  chosen  as  the  anchorage  for  the  airship. 
Lieutenant  J.  V.  Lawrence  was  at  the  wheel  at  the  com- 
pletion of  the  voyage,  and  the  manner  in  which  he 
handled  the  ship  while  the  landing  was  being  performed 
evoked  a  cheer  of  admiration  from  the  crowd  which 
had  gathered. 

As  soon  as  she  had  been  secured  at  her  anchorage, 
a  big  force,  under  Lieutenant  Little,  was  set  to  work 
preparing  the  ship  for  the  transatlantic  flight.  It 
was  not  long  before  the  treacherous  wind  began  to 
play  upon  the  dirigible,  and  early  in  the  afternoon 
she  was  torn  from  her  anchorage,  but  was  recaptured 
and  secured  again. 

Immediately  after  arrival,  Lieutenant-Commander 
Coil  and  his  crew  got  out  of  the  car  and  prepared  to 
take  twelve  hours'  sleep  before  continuing  their  flight 


264  AIRCRAFT 

across  the  Atlantic.  Before  turning  in,  however,  he 
told  the  story  of  the  trip  to  Newfoundland. 

In  it  he  gave  all  the  credit  to  Lieutenant  Campbell 
and  Lieutenant  J.  V.  Lawrence,  both  of  whom,  he 
said,  were  weary  "and  almost  seasick,"  but  stuck  to 
their  posts.  He  also  described  the  period  of  several 
hours  during  which  the  airship  was  "lost"  over  New- 
foundland. 

"We  made  a  'landfall'  at  St.  Pierre,"  he  said,  "but 
found  ourselves  on  the  west  instead  of  the  east  shore 
of  Placentia  Bay.  From  this  point  we  attempted  to 
follow  the  Chicago's  radio  directions,  but  they  did  not 
work.  For  the  moment  we  were  lost. 

"We  started  ' cross  lots'  and  saw  about  all  of  New- 
foundland, and  I  must  say  that  this  is  the  doggonedest 
island  to  find  anything  on  I  ever  struck.  Eventually 
we  hit  the  railroad  track  and  followed  it  to  Topsails, 
which  we  identified,  and  then  continued  on  to  St. 
John's.  There  was  considerable  fog,  but  it  did  not 
trouble  us. 

"Throughout  the  time  we  were  trying  to  find  our- 
selves we  had  difficulty  with  our  wireless  set,  and  part 
of  the  time  it  was  out  of  commission. 

"Our  troubles  started  just  after  midnight,  when  the 
sky  became  overcast.  Before  then  we  had  been  flying 
under  a  full  moon  at  an  altitude  of  1,000  feet.  We 
lost  our  bearings  while  approaching  Little  Miquelon 
Island,  off  the  south  coast  of  Newfoundland,  about 
170  miles  from  St.  John's." 

Commander  Coil  praised  the  work  of  the  landing 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    265 

crew  which  moored  the  dirigible.  Rear-Admiral  Spen- 
cer S.  Wood,  commander  of  the  aviation  base,  greeted 
the  C-5's  commander. 

The  C-5  is  192  feet  long,  43  feet  wide,  and  45  feet 
high;  it  has  a  capacity  of  180,000  cubic  feet.  Cruising 
speed,  42  M.  P.  H.;  climb,  1,000  feet  per  minute. 

The  car  is  of  stream-line  form,  40  feet  long,  5  feet  in 
maximum  diameter,  with  steel  tube  outriggers  carry- 
ing an  engine  at  either  side.  Over-all  width  of  riggers, 
15  feet.  Complete  weight  of  car,  4,000  pounds. 

Seven  passengers  may  be  carried,  but  the  usual 
crew  consists  of  four.  At  the  front  the  coxswain  is 
placed;  his  duty  is  to  steer  the  machine  from  right  to 
left.  In  the  next  compartment  is  the  pilot,  who  oper- 
ates the  valves  and  controls  the  vertical  movement  of 
the  ship,  and  aft  of  the  pilot  are  the  mechanicians  con- 
trolling the  engines.  At  the  rear  cockpit  is  the  wire- 
less operator. 

LIEUTENANT-COMMANDER  READ'S  STORY  OF 
TRANSATLANTIC  FLIGHT 

(Reprinted  fr<m  "New  York  World") 

Horta,  the  Azores,  May  18.— -"The  NC-3  left  the 
water  at  Trepassey  Bay  at  10.03,  Greenwich  civil 
time,  on  the  afternoon  of  May  16;  the  NC-4  at  10.05, 
and  the  NC-1  some  time  later.  The  Three  and  Four 
together  left  Mistaken  Point  on  the  course  for  the 
Azores  at  10.16,  and  ten  minutes  later  sighted  the  One, 
several  miles  to  the  rear,  and  flying  higher. 


266  AIRCRAFT 

"We  were  flying  over  icebergs,  with  the  wind  astern 
and  the  sea  smooth.  Our  average  altitude  was  800 
feet.  The  NC-4  drew  ahead  at  10.50,  but  when  over 
the  first  destroyer  made  a  circle  to  allow  the  NC-3  to 
catch  up.  We  then  flew  on  together  until  11.55,  when 
we  lost  sight  of  the  NC-3,  her  running  lights  being  too 
dim  to  be  discerned. 

"From  then  on  we  proceeded  as  if  alone.  Our  engine 
was  hitting  finely,  and  the  oil  pressure  and  water  tem- 
perature was  right.  It  was  very  dark,  but  the  stars 
were  showing.  At  12.19  on  the  morning  of  the  17th 
the  May  moon  started  to  appear,  and  the  welcome  sight 
made  us  all  feel  more  comfortable. 

"As  it  grew  lighter  the  air  became  bumpy,  and  we 
climbed  to  1,800  feet,  but  the  air  remained  bumpy 
most  of  the  night. 

"Each  destroyer  was  sighted  in  turn,  first  being  lo- 
cated by  star-shells,  which,  in  some  cases,  we  saw  forty 
miles  away;  then  by  the  search-lights,  and  finally  by 
the  ships'  light.  All  were  brilliantly  illuminated. 
Some  were  apparently  in  the  exact  position  desig- 
nated. Others  were  some  miles  off  the  line,  necessi- 
tating frequent  changes  of  our  course  so  that  we 
might  pass  near. 

"At  12.41,  when  we  were  passing  No.  4  destroyer,  we 
saw  the  lights  of  another  plane  to  port.  We  kept  the 
lights  in  sight  for  ten  minutes.  After  that  we  saw  no 
other  plane  for  the  remainder  of  our  trip. 

"So  far,  our  average  speed  had  been  90  knots,  indi- 
cating that  we  had  a  12-knot  favorable  wind.  At 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    267 

1.24  the  wind  became  less  favorable  and  we  came  down 
to  1,000  feet. 

"At  5.45  we  saw  the  first  of  the  dawn.  As  it  grew 
lighter  a  Hour  worries  appeared  to  have  passed.  The 
power-plant  and  everything  else  was  running  perfectly. 
The  radio  was  working  marvellously  well.  Messages 
were  received  from  over  1,300  miles,  and  our  radio 
officer  sent  a  message  to  his  mother  in  the  States  via 
Cape  Race. 

"Cape  Race,  then  730  miles  away,  reported  that  the 
NC-3's  radio  was  working  poorly.  The  NC-3  was 
ahead  of  the  NC-1,  and  astern  of  us,  we  learned  by 
intercepted  messages.  Each  destroyer  reported  our 
passing  by  radio.  x  : 

"Sandwiches  and  coffee  from  the  thermos  bottles  and 
chocolate  candy  tasted  fine.  No  emergency  rations 
were  used.  They  require  too  great  an  emergency  to 
be  appreciated.  I  made  several  inspection  trips  aft 
and  held  discussions  with  the  radio  man  and  the  en- 
gineer. Everything  was  all  right. 

"At  6.55  we  passed  over  a  merchant  ship,  and  at  8 
o'clock  we  saw  our  first  indications  of  possible  trouble, 
running  through  light  lumps  of  fog.  It  cleared  at 
8.12,  but  at  9.27  we  ran  into  more  fog  for  a  few  minutes. 
At  9.45  the  fog  became  thicker  and  then  dense.  The 
sun  disappeared  and  we  lost  all  sense  of  direction. 
The  compass  spinning  indicated  a  steep  bank,  and  I 
had  visions  of  a  possible  nose  dive. 

"Then  the  sun  appeared  and  the  blue  sky  once  more, 
and  we  regained  an  even  keel  and  put  the  plane  on  a 


268  AIRCRAFT 

course  above  the  fog,  flying  between  the  fog  and  an 
upper  layer  of  clouds.  We  caught  occasional  glimpses 
of  the  water,  so  we  climbed  to  3,200  feet,  occasionally 
changing  the  course  and  the  altitude  to  dodge  the 
clouds  and  fog. 

"We  sent  out  a  radio  at  10.38  and  at  10.55  to  the 
nearest  destroyer,  thinking  the  fog  might  have  lifted. 
We  received  replies  to  both  messages  that  there  was 
thick  fog  near  the  water.  At  11.10  we  ran  into  light 
rain  for  a  few  minutes. 

"At  11.13  we  sent  a  radio  to  the  destroyer  and  could 
hear  Corvo  reply  that  the  visibility  was  ten  miles. 
Encouraged  by  this  promise  of  better  conditions 
farther  on,  we  kept  going.  Suddenly,  at  11.27,  we 
saw  through  a  rift  what  appeared  to  be  a  tide-rip  on 
the  water.  Two  minutes  later  we  saw  the  outline  of 
rocks. 

"The  tide-rip  was  a  line  of  surf  along  the  southern 
end  of  Flores  Island.  It  was  the  most  welcome  sight 
we  had  ever  seen. 

"We  were  45  miles  off  our  calculated  position,  indi- 
cating that  the  speed  of  the  plane  from  the  last  de- 
stroyer sighted  had  been  85  knots.  The  wind  was 
blowing  us  east  and  south. 

"We  glided  near  to  the  shore  and  rounded  the  point. 
Finding  that  the  fog  stopped  200  feet  above  the  water, 
we  shaped  our  course  for  the  next  destroyer,  flying  low, 
with  a  strong  wind  behind  us.  We  sighted  No.  22 
in  its  proper  place  at  12  o'clock.  This  was  the  first 
destroyer  we  had  seen  since  we  passed  No.  16. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    269 

"The  visibility  then  was  about  12  miles.  We  had 
plenty  of  gasoline  and  oil,  and  decided  to  keep  on  to 
Ponta  Delgada.  Then  it  got  thick  and  we  missed  the 
next  destroyer,  No.  23.  The  fog  closed  down. 

"  We  decided  to  keep  to  our  course  until  1.18,  and  then 
made  a  90-degree  turn  to  the  right  to  pick  up  Fayal 
or  Pico.  Before  this  time,  at  1.04,  we  sighted  the 
northern  end  of  Fayal,  and  once  more  felt  safe. 

"We  headed  for  the  shore,  the  air  clearing  when  we 
neared  the  beach.  We  rounded  the  island  and  landed 
in  a  bight  we  had  mistaken  for  Horta. 

"At  1.17  we  left  thewater  and  rounded  the  next  point. 
Then  we  sighted  the  Columbia  through  the  fog  and 
landed  near  her  at  1.23. 

"  Our  elapsed  time  was  15  hours  and  18  minutes.  Our 
average  speed  81.7  knots.  All  personnel  is  in  the  best 
of  condition.  The  plane  requires  slight  repairs. 

"The  NC-1  is  being  towed  to  port  here.  Its  per- 
sonnel is  on  board  the  Columbia,  all  in  fine  shape. 

"The  Three  has  not  yet  been  located,  but  will  be. 
We  will  proceed  to  Ponta  Delgada  when  the  weather 
permits." 

Ponta  Delgada,  May  20. — "Exceptionally  bad 
weather,  which  was  totally  unexpected,  was  the  sole 
reason  for  the  failure  of  all  three  of  the  American 
navy's  seaplanes  to  fly  from  Trepassey,  Newfoundland, 
to  Ponta  Delgada  on  schedule  time,"  said  Commander 
John  H.  Towers  to  the  correspondent  of  the  Associated 
Press  to-night. 

"Individually,  the  members  of  the  crew  of  the  NC-3 


270  AIRCRAFT 

virtually  gave  up  hope  of  being  rescued  Saturday 
night,  but  collectively  they  showed  no  signs  of  fear, 
and  '  carried  on '  until  they  arrived  in  port  here  Monday 
and  heard  the  forts  firing  salvoes  in  welcome,  and  wit- 
nessed the  scenes  of  general  jubilation  over  their  es- 
cape from  the  sea. 

"Having  run  short  of  fuel  and  encountered  a  heavy 
fog,  the  NC-3  came  down  at  1  o'clock  Saturday  after- 
noon in  order  that  we  might  obtain  our  bearings.  The 
plane  was  damaged  as  it  reached  the  water,  and  was 
unable  to  again  rise.  While  we  were  drifting  the  205 
miles  in  the  heavy  storm  the  high  seas  washed  over  or 
pounded  the  plane,  and  the  boat  began  to  leak.  So 
fast  did  the  water  enter  the  boat  that  the  members 
of  the  crew  took  turns  in  bailing  the  hull  with  a  small 
hand-pump,  while  others  stood  on  the  wings  in  order 
to  keep  the  plane  in  balance.  Meanwhile  we  were 
steering  landward. 

"That  our  radio  was  out  of  commission  was  not 
known  to  the  crew  until  our  arrival  here.  Communica- 
tion had  been  cut  off  since  9  o'clock  Monday  owing  to 
our  having  lost  our  ground-wire. 

"We  ate  chocolate  and  drank  water  from  our  radi- 
ator. This  was  our  only  means  of  subsistence.  The 
crew  smoked  heavily  in  order  to  keep  awake  while  we 
were  drifting.  No  one  of  us  obtained  more  than  four 
hours'  sleep  after  leaving  Trepassey  until  Ponta  Del- 
gada  was  reached. 

"The  hands  of  all  the  members  of  the  crew  of  the 
NC-3  were  badly  swollen  as  a  result  of  their  heroic 
work  at  the  pump;  otherwise  they  did  not  undergo 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    271 

much  suffering.  The  men  have  now  fully  recovered 
from  their  trying  experience. 

"The  NC-3  encountered  heavy  clouds  at  1  o'clock 
Saturday  morning.  The  light  instruments  on  board 
failed,  and  we  sailed  the  plane  above  the  clouds  in 
order  to  get  the  benefit  of  a  moonlight  reading  of  the 
instruments. 

"We  kept  in  sight  of  the  NC-4  until  nearly  daylight 
Saturday,  and  with  the  NC-1  until  shortly  after  day- 
light. All  the  planes  were  flying  in  formation,  but  the 
NC-1  and  NC-4  were  underneath  the  clouds  part  of 
the  time  because  their  light  instruments  were  good. 

"The  NC-3  had  no  difficulty  in  being  guided  by  star- 
shells,  search-lights,  and  smoke  from  the  station  ships 
until  we  reached  Station  14,  which  was  not  seen. 

"I  assumed  that  we  were  off  our  course,  but  did  not 
know  on  which  side,  and  began  flying  a  parallel  course 
in  what  I  thought  was  the  direction  of  Corvo.  Shortly 
after  daylight  we  encountered  a  heavy  fog,  rain  squalls, 
and  high  winds,  all  of  which  continued  until  the  NC-3 
went  down  upon  the  water. 

"Before  alighting  on  the  surface  of  the  sea  my  cal- 
culations showed  us  to  be  in  the  vicinity  of  land,  but 
with  only  two  hours'  fuel  supply  on  hand  and  with 
the  weather  clearing  it  was  decided  to  land  and  ascer- 
tain our  exact  position. 

"Our  radio  kept  up  sending  messages,  assuming 
that  the  torpedo-boat  destroyers  were  picking  them 
up.  We  did  not  know  the  radio  was  useless  and  that 
the  destroyers  had  not  been  receiving  the  messages. 

"All  the  crew  thought  the  sea  would  moderate,  but 


272  AIRCRAFT 

the  plane  was  so  badly  damaged  in  the  high  billows 
that  we  were  unable  to  rise  again. 

"We  were  60  miles  southwest  of  Pico  when  we 
alighted,  the  position  being  where  we  had  figured  we 
were  before  coming  down. 

"The  clearing  of  the  weather  proved  only  temporary, 
for  later  a  storm  came  up  and  continued  for  48  hours. 
With  both  lower  wings  wrecked,  the  pontoons  lost, 
and  the  hull  leaking,  and  the  tail  of  the  machine  dam- 
aged, the  plane  was  tossed  about  like  a  cork. 

"In  order  to  conserve  the  remaining  170  gallons  of 
fuel  we  decided  to  'sail'  landward,  hoping  to  sight  a 
destroyer  on  the  way.  But  we  did  not  pass  a  single 
ship  until  we  reached  Ponta  Delgada.  Off  the  port 
we  declined  proffered  aid  by  the  destroyer  Harding, 
which  had  been  sent  out  to  meet  us,  and  'taxied' 
into  port  under  our  own  power. 

"During  the  two  days'  vigil  of  seeking  land  or  rescue 
ships  we  fired  all  our  distress  signals,  none  of  which 
apparently  were  seen. 

"Without  informing  the  crew  of  the  fear  that  I  had 
that  we  would  be  lost,  I  packed  our  log  in  a  water- 
proof cover,  tied  it  to  a  life-belt,  and  was  prepared  to 
cast  it  adrift  when  the  NC-3  sank. 

"The  nervous  strain  was  terrible  while  we  were 
drifting,  and  the  men  smoked  incessantly.  This  was 
the  only  thing  that  kept  them  awake. 

"I  believe  a  transatlantic  flight  is  practicable  with- 
out a  stop  with  planes  a  little  larger  than  the  NC  type. 
The  engines  of  all  three  of  the  planes  worked  per- 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    273 

fectly,  and  could  have  run  6,000  miles  more  if  there  had 
been  sufficient  fuel  on  board. 

"Wire  trouble  in  the  instrument  board  was  the 
mechanical  defect  experienced  by  the  NC-3." 

COMMANDER  BELLINGER'S  STORY 

(From  "New  York  World") 

Horta,  Azores,  May  22. — "At  22.10  Greenwich  time 
(6.10  p.  M.  New  York  time)  the  NC-1  left  the  water 
and  took  up  her  position  in  the  formation  astern  of 
the  NC-3  and  NC-4,  bound  for  the  Azores,  to  land  at 
Horta  or  Ponta  Delgada,  depending  on  the  gasoline 
consumption. 

"The  NC-1  got  away  with  difficulty  due  to  the  heavy 
load  she  carried.  Finally,  after  a  long  run  on  the  sur- 
face, she  reached  planing  speed  and  hopped  off.  The 
Three  and  Four  were  far  ahead.  We  could  just  make 
out  the  number  '4'  in  the  distance.  When  night  came 
we  lost  sight  of  the  other  plane  entirely. 

"No.  1  station  ship  we  passed  on  the  port  hand.  It 
made  us  feel  good  to  see  our  solid  friend  below  us,  while 
we  were  passing  over  an  array  of  icebergs  which  re- 
sembled gigantic  tombstones.  The  course  we  fol- 
lowed took  us  over  one  iceberg  just  at  dusk.  Our 
altitude  then  was  1,000  feet,  which  gave  us  room  and 
to  spare. 

"The  other  station  ships,  placed  50  miles  apart,  we 
passed  in  their  regular  order,  some  on  one  side  and 
some  on  the  other.  We  found  that  star-shells  fired 


274  AIRCRAFT 

by  the  station  ships  at  night  were  visible  for  a  much 
greater  distance  than  were  the  rays  of  the  search-lights. 
On  one  occasion  two  ships  were  visible  to  us  at  the  same 
time. 

"The  night  was  well  on  before  the  moon  rose,  and  we 
wondered  whether  the  sky  would  prove  to  be  clear 
or  overcast.  Luckily  it  was  a  partially  clear  moon 
that  rose  bright  and  full,  and  though  passing  clouds 
sometimes  obscured  it,  the  sky  could  always  be  suffi- 
ciently defined  to  be  of  inestimable  aid  to  the  pilots 
controlling  the  plane. 

"We  flew  along  at  an  altitude  of  1,200  feet,  and  got 
the  air  drift  during  the  night  from  the  dropping  flares, 
sighting  on  them  with  the  drift  indicator.  The  air 
was  slightly  lumpy  through  the  night.  A  station  ship 
full  in  the  rays  of  the  moon  was  almost  passed  without 
being  seen  by  us.  Then  it  focussed  its  search-light 
upon  us  to  attract  our  attention. 

"Nobody  on  board  the  NC-1  slept  during  the  entire 
flight.  The  time  passed  very  quickly,  and  we  found 
the  work  of  watching  for  the  station  ships  and  checking 
the  air  drift  very  interesting.  Hot  coffee  and  sand- 
wiches were  available  for  all  hands  throughout  the 
flight. 

"Finally,  the  glow  of  the  dawn  appeared  in  the  east 
and  soon  thereafter  the  sun  arose.  The  motors  were 
hitting  beautifully,  and  we  were  making  a  good  70 
miles  per  hour.  Everybody  was  feeling  fine  and  con- 
fident that  nothing  could  stop  us  making  Ponta  Del- 
gada. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    275 

Plane  Runs  into  a  Thick  Fog 

"But  soon  we  began  to  encounter  thick  overcast 
patches  and  the  visibility  became  poor.  As  we  went 
through  one  thick  stretch,  station  ship  No.  16  loomed 
dead  ahead  of  us.  Some  of  the  station  ships  radioed 
weather  reports  to  us.  We  passed  No.  17,  on  the  port 
hand,  at  a  distance  of  12  miles  at  10.04  (6.04  New 
York  time),  and  shortly  thereafter,  while  we  were 
flying  at  an  altitude  of  600  feet,  we  ran  into  a  thick  fog. 

"The  pilots  climbed  to  get  above  the  fog,  for  it  was 
very  dense  and  bedimmed  their  goggles  and  the  glass 
over  the  instruments  very  quickly.  It  was  almost 
impossible  to  read  the  instruments.  Pilots  Barin  and 
Mitscher  did  excellent  work  and  brought  the  plane  to 
an  altitude  of  3,000  feet,  well  above  the  fog.  For  a 
while  there  the  sight  was  a  beautiful  one,  but  none  of 
us  could  appreciate  it.  We  could  not  see  the  water 
through  the  fog,  and  we  could  not  determine  how  far 
we  were  drifting. 

"We  dodged  some  fog,  but  soon  encountered  more. 
We  continued  on,  side-slipping  and  turning  in  an  effort 
to  keep  on  our  course,  until  12.50  (8.50  A.  M.  New 
York  time),  when  we  decided  to  come  down  near  the 
water  and  get  our  bearings,  intending  then  to  fly  under- 
neath the  fog.  We  came  down  to  an  altitude  of  75 
feet.  The  visibility  there  was  about  half  a  mile.  The 
air  was  bumpy  and  the  wind  shifted  from  350  to  290 
magnetic. 

"We  changed  our  course  to  conform  with  the  new 


276  AIRCRAFT 

conditions,  and  sent  out  radio  signals  requesting  com- 
pass bearings  by  wireless.  We  decided  to  land  if  the 
fog  thickened.  A  few  minutes  thereafter  we  ran  into 
a  low,  thick  fog.  I  turned  the  plane  about  and  headed 
into  the  wind,  landing  at  13.10  (9.10  A.  M.  New  York 
time),  after  flying  a  total  of  15  hours. 

"The  water  was  very  rough;  much  too  rough  to  war- 
rant an  attempt  to  get  away  again.  The  outlook  was 
exceedingly  gloomy.  We  realized  that  we  could  not  go 
on,  and  must  wait  where  we  were  to  be  picked  up. 
The  wind  and  the  condition  of  the  water  prevented 
our  taxiing  over  the  sea  to  windward,  and  we  soon 
found  that  radio  communication  between  the  plane  and 
the  ships  was  difficult  and  unsatisfactory. 

"We  put  over  a  sea-anchor  shortly  after  we  alighted, 
but  it  was  carried  away  almost  immediately.  Then 
we  rigged  a  metal  bucket  as  a  sea-anchor,  and  that  did 
a  great  deal  of  good.  The  wings  and  tail  of  the  NC-1, 
however,  got  severe  punishment  from  the  rough  sea, 
and  the  fabric  on  the  outer  and  lower  wings  was  slit 
to  help  preserve  the  structure.  In  an  effort  to  reduce 
the  punishment  to  the  plane,  too,  I  kept  one  of  the 
centre  motors  running,  but  nevertheless  both  the 
wings  and  the  tail  were  badly  damaged. 

"It  looked  for  some  time  as  if  the  plane  would  cap- 
size. All  hands  realized  the  danger  we  were  in,  but 
none  of  them  showed  the  slightest  fear.  At  17.40 
(1.40  p.  M.  New  York  time)  we  sighted  a  steamer,  hull 
down,  and  sent  a  radio  message  to  her.  Then  we 
taxied  in  her  direction.  The  ship  proved  to  be  the 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    277 

Ionia.  She  had  no  wireless.  After  a  little  she  sighted 
us.  Then  the  fog  shut  down  again  and  the  ship  dis- 
appeared from  view. 

"  Later,  when  the  fog  cleared,  we  saw  that  the  ship 
was  heading  for  us.  We  got  alongside  at  19.20  (3.20 
p.  M.  New  York  time),  and  at  2.20  were  on  board  the 
Ionia.  An  effort  was  made  to  tow  the  plane,  but  the 
line  parted.  A  destroyer  came  alongside  at  00.35 
(8.35  P.  M.  New  York  time)  and  took  charge  of  the 
NC-1.  The  Ionia  landed  us  at  Horta.  The  plane 
was  left  at  latitude  29  degrees,  58  minutes,  longitude 
30  degrees,  15  minutes." 

HISTORY  OF  NAVY'S  GREAT  OCEAN  FLIGHT 

November,  1917 — Conference  between  navy  and 
Curtiss  engineers  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

January,  1918 — Working  model  tested  in  wind-tun- 
nel. Found  practical. 

October,  1918— Trial  flight  of  NC-1  at  Rockaway 
Beach,  Long  Island. 

November,  1918 — NC-1  makes  long-distance  trip 
from  Rockaway  to  Anacostia,  D.  C.,  358  miles,  in  5 
hours  19  minutes. 

February,  1919— NC-2  climbs  2,000  feet  in  five 
minutes. 

February  24,  1919 — Secretary  of  Navy  orders  four 
planes  to  be  prepared  for  transatlantic  flight. 

April  3,  1919 — NC-2  found  to  be  impractical  in  de- 
sign of  hull,  and  is  taken  out  of  the  flight.  NC-3  and 
NC-4  assembled  at  Rockaway. 


278  AIRCRAFT 

May  7 — NC-4  damaged  by  fire  while  in  hangar. 
Wings  replaced.  Elevators  repaired. 

May  8 — Three  planes  leave  Rockaway  for  Trepassey 
Bay,  Newfoundland. 

May  8— NC-3  and  NC-4  arrive  at  Halifax,  N.  S. 
(450  miles). 

NC-4  forced  down  by  motor  trouble.  Puts  in  at 
Chatham  Bay,  Mass.,  for  repairs  after  riding  the  waves 
all  night. 

May  10 — NC-1  and  NC-3  proceed  from  Halifax  to 
Trepassey  in  6  hours  56  minutes  (460  miles). 

May  14 — NC-4  flies  from  Chatham  to  Halifax  in  4 
hours  10  minutes  at  85  miles  an  hour. 

May  16 — Three  planes  leave  Trepassey  Bay  for 
Azores,  1,250  miles. 

NC-4  lands  at  Horta,  Azores,  in  15  hours  18  minutes. 

NC-1  drops  in  ocean  half  hour  from  Flores.  Crew 
rescued;  seaplane  a  total  wreck. 

NC-3  lost  in  storm.  Forced  to  descend  205  miles 
from  destination. 

May  19 — NC-3  arrives  at  Ponta  Delgada  riding 
waves  under  own  power.  Wings  and  hull  wrecked. 
Engine-struts  broken.  Out  of  race. 

May  20— NC-4  flies  from  Horta  to  Ponta  Delgada, 
Azores,  160  miles,  in  1  hour  44  minutes. 

May  27 — NC-4  flies  from  Ponta  Delgada  to  Lisbon, 
Portugal,  810  miles,  in  9  hours  43  minutes.  Flying 
time  from  Newfoundland  to  Portugal  (2,150  miles), 
26  hours  45  minutes. 

May  30 — NC-4  flies  from  Lisbon  to  Ferrol,  Spain, 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    279 

300  miles,  after  a  halt  at  Mondego,  100  miles  north 
of  Lisbon,  owing  to  engine  trouble. 

May  31 — NC-4  flies  from  Ferrol,  Spain,  to  Plymouth, 
England,  400  miles,  without  a  hitch,  thus  completing 
the  transatlantic  flight  as  scheduled. 

BRITISH  EFFORTS  TO  FLY  THE  ATLANTIC 

Captain  Hawker,  with  his  Sopwith,  was  the  first  to 
get  to  St.  John's  on  March  4.  He  was  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  Captain  Raynham  and  his  Martinsyde. 

Owing  to  the  constant  bad  weather  which  has  ob- 
tained for  seven  weeks,  the  British  fliers  had  not 
dared  to  attempt  the  flight  until  Sunday,  May  18, 
when  Hawker  and  Raynham  started.  Everything 
from  snow  to  the  70-mile  gale  which  blew  on  April  15 
has  been  experienced  at  St.  John's.  The  storm  con- 
tinued throughout  that  and  the  next  morning.  The 
mechanicians  at  the  hangars  of  the  two  flying-camps 
spent  the  night  watching  and  guarding  the  aeroplanes. 
The  Martinsyde  plane,  which  was  housed  in  one  of  the 
portable  canvas  hangars  used  by  the  British  army  in 
the  war,  was  in  danger  of  injury  for  a  time,  when  the 
gale  ripped  up  the  pegs  that  anchored  the  canvas  flies 
of  the  hangar,  and  for  a  time  threatened  to  snatch  the 
whole  thing  into  the  air.  These  storms  have  made 
the  grounds  impossible  for  taking  off,  and  as  the  fliers 
hoped  to  take  advantage  of  the  full  moon,  which  was 
beginning  to  gradually  wane,  the  opportunities  for 
flying  by  moonlight  disappeared  and  a  second  moon 
was  on  the  wane  before  they  started. 


280  AIRCRAFT 

On  March  4  Captain  Hawker  landed  at  St.  John's, 
Newfoundland,  with  his  Sopwith  plane,  and  his  five 
mechanics  began  to  assemble  the  machine,  which  fol- 
lows the  general  lines  of  construction  adopted  by  the 
Sopwith  war-plane  designers.  It  is  46  feet  wide  and  31 
feet  long,  with  a  flight  duration  of  25  hours  at  100 
miles  an  hour.  During  a  daylight-to-dusk  duration 
test  Commander  Grieve  and  Pilot  Hawker  covered 
over  900  miles  in  9  hours  5  minutes,  exactly  half  the 
distance  between  Newfoundland  and  Ireland.  The 
Rolls-Royce  engine  develops  375  horse-power  at  1,800 
revolutions  of  the  crank-shaft.  A  four-bladed  pro- 
peller is  used  geared  down  to  1,281  revolutions.  The 
Sopwith  machine  weighs  6,000  pounds  fully  equipped 
for  the  transatlantic  flight.  In  the  trial  test  the  en- 
gine consumed  146  gallons  of  petrol — slightly  over 
one-third  the  capacity  of  the  tanks,  which  are  placed 
behind  the  engine  and  in  front  of  the  cockpit  in  which 
Major  Hawker  and  Commander  Grieve  sit. 

At  the  end  of  the  900-mile  tryout  the  engine  devel- 
oped exactly  the  same  power  as  at  the  start,  which 
leads  Major  Hawker  to  believe  the  engine  will  continue 
to  perform  the  same  for  the  rest  of  the  distance. 

Major  Hawker  proposed  leaving  St.  John's,  New- 
foundland, about  4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  travel- 
ling through  the  night  they  hoped  to  pass  the  south 
coast  of  Ireland  shortly  before  noon  the  following  day, 
English  time,  arriving  at  the  Brooklands  aerodrome, 
near  London,  at  4  o'clock,  a  total  flying  tune  of  19 
hours  and  30  minutes. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT^281 

In  case  they  were  forced  to  descend  into  the  sea, 
the  "fairing"  of  the  fuselage  is  so  constructed  that  it 
forms  a  boat  large  enough  to  support  the  two  men  in 
the  water  for  some  time.  In  addition  they  wear  life- 
saving  jackets.  A  medical  officer  in  the  British  Air 
Ministry  made  up  some  scientific  food  sufficient  for 
forty-eight  hours.  This  includes  sugar,  cheese,  coffee, 
sandwiches,  and  tabloids. 

MAJOR  HARRY  HAWKER 

Major  Harry  Hawker  is  an  Australian,  just  31. 
He  is  the  highest  paid  flier  in  the  world.  He  was  a 
bicycle  mechanic  in  Australia  when  he  went  to  England 
in  1912  and  became  an  aeroplane  mechanic.  In  1912 
he  joined  the  T.  0.  M.  Sopwith  Company,  and  a  year 
later  he  came  to  the  United  States  and  flew  in  "Tim" 
Woodruff's  Nassau  Boulevard  meet.  Hawker  re- 
turned to  England,  and  about  a  year  later  entered 
the  famous  "round  England  flight." 

On  October  24,  1912,  in  a  Sopwith  biplane,  designed 
after  the  pattern  of  the  American  Wright,  and  driven 
by  a  40  horse-power  ABC  engine,  he  put  up  the 
British  duration  record  to  8  hours  and  23  minutes, 
thus  winning  the  Michelin  Cup  for  that  year. 

On  May  31,  1913,  in  a  Sopwith  tractor  biplane, 
with  an  80  horse-power  Gnome  engine,  he  put  up  the 
British  altitude  record  for  a  pilot  alone  to  11,450  feet, 
and  on  June  16  of  the  same  year,  in  the  same  machine, 
he  hung  up  a  record,  with  one  passenger,  of  12,900 
feet. 


282  AIRCRAFT 

On  the  same  day  he  took  up  two  passengers  to  10,600 
feet,  and  on  July  27  took  up  three  passengers  to  8,400 
feet,  all  of  which  were  British  records. 

In  1913  and  1914,  in  a  Sopwith  seaplane,  Hawker 
made  two  attempts  to  win  the  Daily  Mail's  $25,000 
prize  for  a  flight  on  a  seaplane  around  Great  Britain. 
The  first  time  he  was  knocked  out  by  illness  at  Yar- 
mouth, and  the  second  time  he  met  with  an  accident 
near  Dublin. 

During  the  last  three  years  Hawker  has  been  test 
pilot  for  the  Sopwiths,  receiving  $125  for  each  flight, 
and  sometimes  making  a  dozen  in  a  single  day.  His  an- 
nual earnings  in  this  period  are  estimated  at  $100,000. 

COMMANDER  GRIEVE 

Commander  Mackenzie  Grieve  is  39  years  old.  He 
has  not  been  connected  with  aeronautics  for  any  great 
length  of  time,  but  is  an  officer  of  the  Royal  navy,  who 
has  specialized  on  navigation  and  wireless  telegraphy 
and  telephony.  He  has  been  strongly  commended  by 
the  Admiralty  for  his  work  in  this  direction,  and  has 
been  chosen  as  a  navigator  on  the  cross-sea  trip  be- 
cause he  has  combined  two  branches  of  a  naval  offi- 
cer's work,  which  are  not,  as  a  rule,  made  the  subject 
of  specialization  by  one  man,  but  both  of  which  are 
essential  to  such  a  feat  as  a  transatlantic  flight. 

TEST  FLIGHTS  OF  THE  SOPWITH 

On  April  11  Major  Harry  Hawker  made  a  successful 
test  flight  at  St.  John's. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    283 

The  wireless  station  there  sent  messages  to  the 
aviator  which  he  was  unable  to  pick  up,  but  the  sta- 
tion at  Mount  Pearl  kept  in  continual  touch  with  the 
machine  through  all  the  flight.  After  his  flight  the 
flier  said  that  his  speed  while  in  the  air  had  been  on 
an  average  of  100  miles  an  hour. 

THE  MARTINSYDE  PLANE  ARRIVES 

On  April  2  Captain  Frederick  Phillips  Raynham, 
the  pilot  of  the  Martinsyde  aeroplane,  and  Captain 
Charles  Willard  Fairfax  Morgan,  navigator,  arrived 
at  St.  John's  and  began  to  make  preparations  for 
setting  up  their  canvas  hangar  which  was  to  house 
their  aeroplane.  The  aerodrome  selected  was  at  the 
Quid  Vivi.  This  site  hap!  been  selected  by  Major 
Morgan  about  three  months  ago,  and  the  tent  was 
set  up  on  that  field  as  per  the  plans  and  specifica- 
tions. 

The  biplane  weighs,  fully  loaded,  about  5,000 
pounds  and  carries  360  gallons  of  gas,  while  the  Sop- 
with  weighs  about  6,100  pounds  and  carries  only  350 
gallons.  Raynham  says  he  has  a  cruising  radius  of 
2,000  miles  with  a  twenty-mile  head  wind  against  him 
all  the  way  across.  But  as  the  prevailing  winds  are 
from  west  to  east,  he  expects  to  fly  with  the  wind 
most  of  the  way.  The  machine  was  designed  by  G. 
H.  Handasyde,  who  has  had  many  years'  designing 
experience  in  co-operation  with  H.  P.  Martin,  chair- 
man of  Martinsydes. 

The  reappearance  in  the  transatlantic  attempt  of  a 


284  AIRCRAFT 

Martinsyde  plane  as  a  competitor  for  the  Daily  Mail 
prize  recalls  that  the  firm  as  early  as  1914  entered  for 
a  transatlantic  competition,  having  completed  a  mono- 
plane which  was  to  have  started  from  St.  John's,  the 
scene  of  the  present  venture.  This  machine  was  to 
have  been  flown  by  Gustave  Hamel,  who,  it  will  be 
remembered,  while  flying  from  London  to  Paris, 
came  down  at  Calais,  ascended  again,  and  has  never 
since  been  heard  of.  He  is  believed  to  have  been 
drowned  in  the  North  Sea,  for  no  trace  of  his  machine 
was  ever  found. 

CAPTAIN  RAYNHAM 

Captain  Raynham  is  25  years  old.  He  began  to 
fly  at  17,  being  the  possessor  of  half  a  dozen  of  the 
oldest  flying  licenses  in  England.  Most  of  his  experi- 
ence has  been  in  experimental  and  test  flying. 

Raynham  went  with  Martinsydes  in  the  early  de- 
velopment days  of  1907,  and  was  with  them  when 
they  began  monoplane  production  in  1908.  This  they 
continued  until  the  war  began,  when  they  turned  to 
building  biplanes,  the  present  machine  being  only  a 
very  slight  modification  of  their  latest  fighting  scout. 

The  Martinsyde  biplane  was  not  especially  designed 
for  the  transatlantic  flight,  but  was  taken  from  stock. 
It  still  carries  its  original  fighting  equipment,  similar 
to  that  used  during  the  war.  The  machine  is  named 
the  "Raymor,"  a  combination  of  the  names  Raynham 
and  Morgan. 

The  machine  has  a  wing  span  of  41  feet  and  a  lift- 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    285 

ing  area  of  500  square  feet;  over-all  length,  26  feet; 
height,  from  ground  to  top  of  propeller,  10  feet  10 
inches.  The  engine  is  a  Rolls-Royce  "Falcon,"  which 
is  rated  at  285  horse-power.  It  has  a  capacity  of 
developing  up  to  300  horse-power  at  a  speed  of  100 
to  125  miles  per  hour.  The  cruising  radius  is  2,500 
miles. 

The  Martinsyde  machine  carries  no  life-saving  ap- 
paratus of  any  kind.  Tanks  are  provided  for  fuel 
capacity  of  375  gallons,  sufficient  for  a  flight  of  25 
hours  at  100  miles  per  hour.  Raynham's  idea  is  to 
make  an  ascent  at  an  angle  of  3  degrees  until  an  alti- 
tude of  1,500  feet  is  reached.  This  altitude  would  be 
attained  in  24  hours,  at  which  time  land  on  the  other 
side  would  be  within  planing  distance. 

CAPTAIN  WOODS'S  ATTEMPTED  FLIGHT  TO  AMEKICA 

The  aeroplane  of  the  Shortt  brothers,  one  of  the 
entries  for  the  $50,000  race  across  the  Atlantic,  was  to 
start  from  Ireland  for  Newfoundland.  The  machine 
is  expected  to  make  the  journey  in  twenty  hours,  but 
owing  to  a  defective  carburetor  the  machine  fell  in 
the  Irish  Sea  while  making  the  flight  from  England  to 
Ireland.  Captain  Woods  was  rescued,  but  no  further 
news  has  been  received  of  the  preparations  for  the 
flight. 

The  Shortt  brothers  had  chosen  the  Limerick  sec- 
tion of  Ireland  for  their  starting-point.  It  is  con- 
sidered likely  that  the  Shortt  trial  will  be  the  only 
east-to-west  attempt,  all  of  the  other  entries  in  the 


286  AIRCRAFT 

Daily  Mail's  contest  having  indicated  their  intention 
of  flying  eastward  because  of  the  strong  head  winds 
from  the  west. 

The  machine  entered  by  the  Shortt  brothers  is  the 
Shortt  "  ShieP '  aeroplane.  It  is  fitted  with  a  375 
horse-power  Rolls-Royce  engine,  developing  a  speed 
of  ninety-five  miles  an  hour.  The  machine  carries  a 
pilot  and  a  navigator.  Of  biplane  type,  the  machine, 
its  makers  say,  is  capable  of  a  3,200  mile  non-stop  drive. 

In  their  application  to  the  British  Air  Ministry, 
the  Shortts  designated  Major  James  C.  P.  Woods,  of 
the  Royal  Flying  Corps,  as  pilot,  with  Captain  C.  C. 
Wylie.  In  addition  to  his  experience  in  the  air,  Major 
Woods  had  considerable  experience  as  a  navigator  on 
destroyers  guarding  troop-ships  through  the  Atlantic 
submarine  zone.  Major  Woods,  who  has  flown  more 
than  10,000  miles,  gained  fame  as  a  bomber  in  France. 

The  latest  contestant  to  arrive  at  St.  John's  was  the 
Handley  Page  Berlin  Bomber  which  was  landed  on 
May  10.  The  biplane  is  the  only  one  to  be  compared 
with  the  United  States  navy  flying-boats  in  size. 
The  wing  spread  is  126  feet,  the  chord  12  feet.  The 
total  weight  of  the  machine  is  about  16,000  pounds. 
It  carries  3  pilots,  3  mechanics,  2  wireless  operators, 
and  2,000  gallons  of  gas.  The  wireless  is  long  enough 
to  keep  in  touch  with  both  shores  all  the  way.  The 
route  is  to  Limerick,  Ireland.  The  machine  has  four 
Rolls-Royce  motors  of  350  horse-power,  and  the  aero- 
plane is  taken  from  stock.  They  expect  to  travel  90 
miles  per  hour. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    287 

One  of  the  pilots  is  Colonel  T.  Gran,  the  Norwegian 
who  first  flew  from  Scotland  to  Norway  in  August, 
1914.  He  was  a  member  of  the  British  R.  A.  F.  and 
also  with  Captain  Scott  in  the  South  Polar  Expedition. 

Major  Brackley  has  had  perhaps  as  much  experi- 
ence in  night  flying  as  any  living  man,  and  Admiral 
Mark  Kerr  is  one  of  the  oldest  pilots  in  England.  He 
was  the  sixth  to  be  granted  a  pilot's  license  in  England. 

HAWKER'S  STORY  OF  ATLANTIC  FLIGHT 

Thurso,  Scotland,  May  26. — Harry  Hawker  and 
Mackenzie  Grieve  gave  the  London  Daily  Mail  an 
outline  of  their  historic  flight.  Hawker  told  his  story 
simply  as  follows: 

"We  had  very  difficult  ground  to  rise  from  on  the 
other  side.  To  get  in  the  air  at  all  we  had  to  run  di- 
agonally across  the  course.  Once  we  got  away,  we 
climbed  very  well,  but  about  ten  minutes  up  we  passed 
from  firm,  clear  weather  into  fog. 

"Off  the  Newfoundland  banks  we  got  well  over  this 
fog,  however,  and,  of  course,  at  once  lost  sight  of  the 
sea.  The  sky  was  quite  clear  for  the  first  four  hours, 
when  the  visibility  became  very  bad.  Heavy  cloud- 
banks  were  encountered,  and  eventually  we  flew  into 
a  heavy  storm  with  rain  squalls. 

"At  this  time  we  were  flying  well  above  the  clouds 
at  a  height  of  about  15,000  feet. 

"About  five  and  one-half  hours  out,  owing  to  the 
choking  of  the  filter,  the  temperature  of  the  water 
cooling  out  the  engines  started  to  rise,  but  after  com- 


288  AIRCRAFT 

ing  down  several  thousand  feet  we  overcame  this 
difficulty. 

"Everything  went  well  for  a  few  hours,  when  once 
again  the  circulation  system  became  choked  and  the 
temperature  of  the  water  rose  to  the  boiling-point. 
We  of  course  realized  until  the  pipe  was  cleared  we 
could  not  rise  much  higher  without  using  a  lot  of  motor 
power. 

"When  we  were  about  ten  and  one-half  hours  on 
our  way  the  circulation  system  was  still  giving  trouble, 
and  we  realized  we  could  not  go  on  using  up  our  motor 
power. 

"Then  it  was  we  reached  the  fateful  decision  to  play 
for  safety.  We  changed  our  course  and  began  to  fly 
diagonally  across  the  main  shipping  route  for  about  two 
and  a  half  hours,  when,  to  our  great  relief,  we  sighted 
the  Danish  steamer  which  proved  to  be  the  tramp 
Mary. 

"We  at  once  sent  up  our  Very  light  distress  signals. 
These  were  answered  promptly,  and  then  we  flew  on 
about  two  miles  and  landed  in  the  water  ahead  of  the 
steamer. 

Impossible  to  Salve  Machine 

"The  sea  was  exceedingly  rough,  and  despite  the 
utmost  efforts  of  the  Danish  crew  it  was  one  and  a  half 
hours  before  they  succeeded  in  taking  us  off.  It  was 
only  at  a  great  risk  to  themselves,  in  fact,  that  they 
eventually  succeeded  in  launching  a  small  boat,  owing 
to  the  heavy  gale  from  the  northeast  which  was  raging. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    289 

"It  was  found  impossible  to  salve  the  machine,  which, 
however,  is  most  probably  still  afloat  somewhere  in 
the  mid-Atlantic. 

"Altogether,  before  being  picked  up,  we  had  been 
fourteen  and  a  half  hours  out  from  Newfoundland. 
We  were  picked  up  at  8.30  (British  summer  time). 

"From  Captain  Duhn  of  the  Mary  and  his  Danish 
crew  we  received  the  greatest  kindness  on  our  journey 
home.  The  ship  carried  no  wireless,  and  it  was  not 
until  we  arrived  off  the  Butt  of  Lewis  that  we  were 
able  to  communicate  with  the  authorities. 

"Off  Loch  Eireball  we  were  met  by  the  destroyer 
Woolston  and  conveyed  to  Scapa  Flow,  where  we  had 
a  splendid  welcome  home  from  Admiral  Freemantle 
and  the  men  of  the  Grand  Fleet." 

Commander  Mackenzie  Grieve,  the  navigator  of  the 
Sopwith,  said: 

"When  but  a  few  hundred  miles  out  a  strong  north- 
erly gale  drove  us  steadily  out  of  our  course.  It  was 
not  always  possible,  owing  to  the  pressure  of  the  dense 
masses  of  cloud,  to  take  our  bearings,  and  I  calculate 
that  at  the  time  we  determined  to  cut  across  the  ship- 
ping route  we  were  about  200  miles  off  our  course. 

"Up  to  this  change  of  direction  we  had  covered 
about  1,000  miles  of  our  journey  to  the  Irish  coast." 

VICKERS  "VIMY"  BOMBER  MAKES  FIRST  NON-STOP 
FLIGHT  FROM  AMERICA  TO  EUROPE 

Leaving  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  at  12.13  p.  M. 
New  York  time  on  Saturday,  June  14,  the  Vickers 


290  AIRCRAFT 

"Vimy"  bomber,  bimotored  Rolls-Royce  aeroplane, 
with  two  four-bladed  propellers,  and  piloted  by  Cap- 
tain John  Alcock  and  navigated  by  Lieutenant  Arthur 
W.  Brown,  landed  at  Clifden,  Galway,  Ireland,  at 
4.40  A.  M.  New  York  time,  aerially  transnavigating 
1,960  miles  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  from  the  New  World 
to  the  Old,  in  16  hours  and  12  minutes,  or  at  an  av- 
erage rate  of  120  miles  an  hour.  Although  the  moon 
was  full,  the  fog  and  mist  was  so  dense  that  the  avia- 
tors could  not  see  the  moon,  sun,  or  stars  for  fourteen 
out  of  the  sixteen  hours  in  the  air.  During  the  flight 
they  flew  through  atmosphere  so  cold  that  ice  caked 
on  the  instruments.  Nevertheless,  the  engines  func- 
tioned consistently  throughout  the  journey,  which 
was,  in  many  ways,  as  remarkable  as  the  voyage  of 
"The  Ancient  Mariner,"  whom  Coleridge's  poem  of 
that  name  describes. 

Unfortunately,  the  small  propeller  which  drives  the 
dynamo  and  generates  the  current  for  the  wireless 
radio  instruments  had  jarred  loose  and  blown  away 
shortly  after  the  machine  ascended  into  the  air,  and 
the  atmosphere  was  so  surcharged  with  electricity  that 
Lieutenant  Brown  could  not  get  any  radio  messages 
through,  and  the  airship  was  lost  to  the  world  for  over 
sixteen  hours.  During  the  flight  the  men  experienced 
many  thrills,  primarily  because  they  had  no  sense  of 
horizon,  due  to  the  thick  fog  which  prevailed  most  of 
the  way  over.  Under  those  conditions  the  navigation 
was  remarkable,  and  when  the  aviators  saw  the  aerials 
at  Clifden  they  were  delighted.  In  landing  they  mis- 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    291 

took  the  bog  for  a  field,  and  consequently  made  a 
bad  landing,  for  the  machine  sank  into  the  bog  and 
stuck  there  badly  damaged  in  the  wing. 

CAPTAIN  ALCOCK'S  STORY 

Describing  the  experiences  of  himself  and  Lieutenant 
Brown,  Captain  Alcock,  in  a  message  from  Galway  to 
the  London  Daily  Mail,  which  awarded  them  the 
$50,000  prize  for  making  the  first  non-stop  flight  across 
the  Atlantic  between  Europe  and  America,  said: 

"We  had  a  terrible  journey.  The  wonder  is  that 
we  are  here  at  all.  We  scarcely  saw  the  sun  or  moon 
or  stars.  For  hours  we  saw  none  of  them.  The  fog 
was  dense,  and  at  times  we  had  to  descend  within 
300  feet  of  the  sea. 

"For  four  hours  our  machine  was  covered  with  a 
sheet  of  ice  carried  by  frozen  sleet.  At  another  tune 
the  fog  was  so  dense  that  my  speed  indicator  did  not 
work,  and  for  a  few  minutes  it  was  alarming. 

"We  looped  the  loop,  I  do  believe,  and  did  a  steep 
spiral.  We  did  some  comic  stunts,  for  I  have  had  no 
sense  of  horizon. 

"The  winds  were  favorable  all  the  way,  northwest, 
and  at  times  southwest.  We  said  in  Newfoundland 
that  we  could  do  the  trip  in  sixteen  hours,  but  we  never 
thought  we  should.  An  hour  and  a  half  before  we  saw 
land  we  had  no  certain  idea  where  we  were,  but  we 
believed  we  were  at  Galway  or  thereabouts. 

"Our  delight  in  seeing  Eastal  Island  and  Tarbot 
Island,  five  miles  west  of  Clifden,  was  great.  The 


292  AIRCRAFT 

people  did  not  know  who  we  were,  and  thought  we 
were  scouts  looking  for  Alcock. 

"We  encountered  no  unforeseen  conditions.  We 
did  not  suffer  from  cold  or  exhaustion,  except  when 
looking  over  the  side;  then  the  sleet  chewed  bits  out 
of  our  faces.  We  drank  coffee  and  ale,  and  ate  sand- 
wiches and  chocolate. 

"Our  flight  has  shown  that  the  Atlantic  flight  is 
practicable,  but  I  think  it  should  be  done,  not  with 
an  aeroplane  or  seaplane,  but  with  flying-boats. 

"We  had  plenty  of  reserve  fuel  left,  using  only  two- 
thirds  of  our  supply. 

"  The  only  thing  that  upset  me  was  to  see  the  machine 
at  the  end  get  damaged.  From  above  the  bog  looked 
like  a  lovely  field,  but  the  machine  sank  into  it  to  the 
axle,  and  fell  over  on  to  her  side." 

ALCOCK  HAS  SPENT  4,500  HOURS  IN  Am 

There  are  few  fliers,  living  or  dead,  who  have  passed 
as  many  hours  in  the  air  as  Captain  John  Alcock, 
the  twenty-seven-year-old  pilot  of  the  first  aeroplane 
to  make  a  non-stop  flight  across  the  Atlantic.  This 
officer  of  the  Royal  Air  Force  has  flown  more  than 
4,500  hours.  The  one  man  who  is  known  to  have 
passed  more  time  in  the  air  is  Captain  Roy  N.  Francis, 
U.  S.  A. 

Big,  blond,  and  ruddy,  Captain  Alcock  is  typically 
English  in  appearance,  voice,  and  mannerisms.  His 
eyes  are  blue,  and  his  hair,  brushed  straight  back,  is 
almost  flaxen.  He  is  more  than  six  feet  in  height 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    293 

and  heavy  of  $rame.  Powerful  wrists  and  forearms 
attest  to  many  hours  of  tinkering  with  heavy  ma- 
chinery. 

Alcock,  who  was  born  in  Manchester  in  1892,  was 
apprenticed  at  seventeen  to  the  Empress  Motor  Works, 
a  firm  interested  at  that  time  in  the  development  of 
an  aeroplane  engine.  Alcock  helped  to  build  the  first 
aero  engine  made  at  that  plant,  and  meanwhile  devel- 
oped the  flying  fever. 

Then  he  started  experimenting  with  gliders,  and  in 
1911  began  to  fly.  He  earned  his  certificate  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  in  1913  won  the  first  race  in  which  he 
ever  had  entered.  Shortly  afterward  he  took  second 
place  in  the  London  to  Manchester  and  return  com- 
petition, at  that  time  one  of  the  most  famous  air- 
races. 

In  one  of  those  early  competitions  Alcock-  beat 
Frederick  Raynham,  the  pilot  of  the  Martinsyde 
which  was  injured  in  trying  to  get  off  for  the  transat- 
lantic flight  with  Hawker,  whose  effort  to  cross  the 
ocean  in  a  Sopwith  ended  in  mid-ocean  a  few  weeks 
ago. 

From  the  fall  of  1914  to  the  fall  of  1916  Alcock  was 
an  instructor  of  flying  at  Eastchurch,  where  he  trained 
some  of  the  best-known  fliers  of  England.  One  of 
these  was  Major  H.  G.  Brackley,  pilot  of  the  Handley 
Page  bomber,  which  has  been  sent  to  Newfoundland 
in  the  hope  that  it  could  get  away  first  on  the  "hop" 
across  the  Atlantic. 

From  Eastchurch  Alcock  went  to  the  Dardanelles. 


294  AIRCRAFT 

There  he  won  the  Distinguished  Service  Cross  as  an 
ace,  and  it  is  the  gossip  of  the  air  force  that  if  he  had 
not  fallen  prisoner  to  the  Turks  his  rank  would  have 
been  much  higher.  He  has  seven  enemy  planes  to 
his  credit. 

It  was  his  bombing  work  that  attracted  most  atten- 
tion, however,  for  he  made  a  raid  on  Adrianople  and 
dropped  a  ton  of  bombs,  destroying  3,000  houses, 
blowing  up  an  ammunition-train,  and  razed  a  fort. 
Out  of  the  thirty-six  bombs  he  dropped  on  that  ex- 
pedition twenty  were  incendiary  and  sixteen  high- 
explosive.  Accurate  knowledge  of  the  damage  he 
had  inflicted  on  that  September  day  in  1917  did  not 
come  until  after  the  armistice  was  signed,  but  Alcock 
did  not  have  to  wait  until  the  armistice  to  discover 
that  his  adventure  had  been  a  military  success.  Ninety 
miles  from  Adrianople  on  his  return  flight  he  could  still 
see  the  glare  in  the  sky  from  the  fires  his  bombs  had 
ignited. 

He  was  the  first  man  to  bomb  Constantinople, 
and  it  was  on  his  return  from  his  second  bombing  ex- 
pedition over  the  Turkish  capital  that  one  of  the  en- 
gines in  his  twin  Handley  Page  failed  him.  He  man- 
aged to  fly  seventy-six  miles  on  the  other  engine  before 
he  was  forced  to  descend  on  the  island  of  Imbros, 
within  twelve  miles  of  the  home  station. 

But  that  twelve  miles  meant  all  the  difference  be- 
tween friends  and  enemies,  and  the  aviator  was  taken 
prisoner  and  confined  in  the  civil  jail.  Later  he  was 
removed  to  Constantinople  and  then  to  Asia  Minor, 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    295 

where  he  was  held  until  the  armistice  was  signed. 
He  returned  to  England  December  16,  1918. 

Immediately  upon  his  return  Alcock  joined  the 
Vickers  concern  as  a  test  pilot.  It  was  due  to  his  per- 
suasion that  the  conservative  directors  of  the  concern, 
which  controls  the  British  Westinghouse  works,  com- 
mitted themselves  to  the  enterprise  of  entering  an 
aeroplane  in  the  transatlantic  flight  for  the  Daily 
Mail  prize  of  $50,000  for  the  first  non-stop  flight. 

AMERICA  SHARES  ALCOCK'S  TRIUMPH 

There  is  hardly  any  comparison  to  be  made  be- 
tween Captain  Alcock  and  his  navigator,  Lieutenant 
Arthur  Whitten  Brown.  While  Alcock  is  large  of 
frame,  Brown  is  a  full  head  shorter  and  boyish  in 
build.  There  are  gray  threads  in  Brown's  hair,  me- 
mentoes of  twenty-three  months  in  a  German  prison- 
camp.  His  left  foot  is  crippled,  too,  the  result  of  a 
crash  when  he  was  brought  down  by  German  anti- 
aircraft guns  behind  the  German  lines  at  Ba- 
paume. 

Brown  is  an  American  born  of  American  parents  in 
Glasgow  in  1886.  His  father  was  connected  with 
George  Westinghouse  in  the  development  of  an  en- 
gine. It  was  that  engine  that  took  him  to  the  British 
Isles,  and  he  took  part  in  the  organization  of  the 
British  Westinghouse  Company,  now  controlled  by 
Vickers,  Limited,  the  concern  which  built  the  plane  in 
which  the  transocean  flight  was  made. 


296  AIRCRAFT 

1     LIEUTENANT  BROWN 

Lieutenant  Brown's  mother  was  a  member  of  the 
Whitten  family  of  Pittsburgh,  and  his  grandfather 
fought  with  the  famous  Hampden's  Battery  at  Gettys- 
burg. Brown  himself  has  lived  in  Pittsburgh,  where 
he  went  to  continue  the  studies  at  the  Westinghouse 
works  that  had  begun  in  the  works  in  England. 

He  enlisted  in  the  university  and  public  school  corps 
in  1914,  and  in  1915  took  his  wings.  Most  of  his  ser- 
vice was  as  an  observer  and  reconnoissance  officer. 
One  time  the  machine  in  which  he  flew  as  an  observer 
was  shot  down  in  flames.  He  says  of  that  experience 
that  he  "was  burned  a  bit,"  but  was  glad  enough  to 
escape  capture.  The  machine  he  was  in  crashed. 
He  passed  nine  months  in  a  German  hospital  and  four- 
teen more  months  in  a  German  prison-camp,  and  then 
was  repatriated  by  exchange.  He  spent  the  latter 
days  of  the  war  period  in  productions  work  for  the 
Ministry  of  Munitions. 

Lieutenant  Brown  has  never  been  a  navigator  in  any 
but  an  amateur  way.  Navigation  with  him  is  simply 
a  hobby,  and  on  his  frequent  crossings  of  the  Atlantic, 
he  says,  he  never  failed  to  persuade  the  captain  of  his 
ship  to  allow  him  on  the  bridge  to  take  a  shot  at  the 
sun. 

The  flight  across  the  Atlantic,  Brown  said,  would  be 
his  last,  for  he  is  engaged  to  be  married  to  Miss  Ken- 
nedy, the  daughter  of  a  major  of  the  Royal  Air  Force, 
and  they  are  planning  to  pass  their  honeymoon  (and  his 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    297 

share  of  the  prize-money)  on  a  trip  around  the  world. 
After  that  they  are  coming  to  America,  and  Lieutenant 
Brown  plans  to  engage  in  the  practice  of  electrical 
engineering. 

"VIMY"  DESIGNED  TO  BOMB  ENEMY  TOWNS 

The  twin-engined  Vickers-Vimy  plane  in  which  the 
English  pilot  and  his  American  navigator  crossed  to 
Ireland  has  a  67-foot  2-inch  wing  spread.  The  length 
over  all  is  42  feet  8  inches;  gap,  10  feet;  chord,  10 
feet  6  inches.  It  is  a  bombing-type  plane,  and  its  con- 
version to  a  peace-time  adventure  was  accomplished 
by  replacing  the  fighting  equipment  with  tanks  of  a 
total  gasoline  capacity  of  870  gallons,  weighing  more 
than  6,000  pounds. 

The  two  Rolls-Royce  Eagle  375  horse-power  engines 
are  mounted  between  the  upper  and  lower  planes  on 
either  side  of  the  fuselage. 

The  outstanding  feature  of  the  Vimy  is  the  strength 
and  elasticity  of  its  construction,  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  hollow,  seamless  steel  tubing.  This  type  of 
construction  extends  from  the  nose  to  well  behind  the 
planes. 

The  Vimy  has  a  sturdy  double  under-carriage,  with 
a  two-wheeled  chassis  placed  directly  under  each  en- 
gine. Fully  loaded  the  craft  weighs  a  trifle  more  than 
13,000  pounds.  Even  distribution  of  eight  separate 
tanks  and  a  cleverly  arranged  feeding  system  whereby 
the  fuel  is  consumed  at  the  same  rate  from  all  eight 
not  only  insured  a  well-balanced  plane  but  promised 


298  AIRCRAFT 

an  "even  keel"  had  the  fliers  been  forced  down  on  the 
surface  of  the  ocean. 

A  gravity-tank  at  the  top  of  the  fuselage  was  arranged 
to  be  emptied  first,  so  it  could  serve  as  a  life-raft  any 
time  after  the  first  two  hours  of  the  flight,  which  period 
was  necessary  to  exhaust  the  load  of  gasoline  contained 
in  that  tank. 

The  Vimy's  radio  apparatus  is  the  standard  type 
used  by  the  Royal  Air  Force,  and  was  lent  to  Alcock 
by  the  British  Air  Ministry.  It  is  similar  to  that 
carried  by  Hawker's  Sopwith.  The  transmitting  radius 
of  this  type  of  radio  is  placed  at  250  miles.  Messages 
can  be  received  from  a  much  greater  distance. 

VIMY  FLIGHT  SETS  NEW  WORLD'S  DISTANCE  RECORD 

The  1,690-mile  flight  of  the  Vickers  "  Vimy  "  Bomber, 
carrying  Alcock  and  Brown,  establishes  a  new  world's 
record,  breaking  the  one  made  by  Captain  Boehm  in 
a  Mercedes-driven  Albatross  plane,  which  flew  for  25 
hours  and  1  minute  and  covered  1,350  miles. 

The  year  1914,  just  previous  to  the  war,  was  the 
most  prolific  in  long-distance  flights.  On  June  23  the 
German  aviator  Basser  covered  1,200  miles  in  a  Rump- 
ler  biplane  in  16  hours  and  28  minutes. 

The  same  day  Landsmann,  another  German,  drove 
an  Albatross  machine  1,100  miles  in  17  hours  and  17 
minutes,  and  four  days  later  1,200  miles  in  21  hours 
and  49  minutes. 

The  nearest  approach  to  Boehm's  record  was  made 
on  April  25  last,  when  Lieutenant-Commander  H.  B. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    299 

Grow,  U.  S.  N.,  flew  a  twin-engine  F-5-L  flying-boat 
a  total  distance  of  1,250  miles  in  20  hours  and  20 
minutes. 

Lieutenant-Commander  A.  C.  Read,  in  his  hop  on 
the  NC-3  from  Trepassey  Bay  to  Horta  in  the  Azores, 
broke  no  distance  records  in  the  1,200  nautical  miles 
he  flew,  but  shattered  the  record  for  speed,  making 
an  average  of  103.5  miles  an  hour. 

The  French  pre-war  record  was  on  April  27,  1914, 
by  Paulet,  who  flew  950  miles  in  16  hours  and  28 
minutes.  Since  the  war  the  French  aviators  Coli  and 
Roget  flew  from  Villacoublay,  near  Paris,  to  Rabat, 
Morocco,  a  distance  of  1,116  miles  without  stopping. 
The  engine  was  a  300  horse-power  Renault,  and  con- 
stitutes the  longest  single-motor  non-stop  flight  on 
record.  Miss  Ruth  Law  holds  the  record  for  long- 
distance flight  by  a  woman.  On  November  19,  1916, 
she  covered  the  590  miles  from  Chicago  to  Hornell, 
N.  Y.,  in  5  hours  and  45  minutes. 

THE  FIRST  TRANSATLANTIC  FLIGHT  OF  THE  R-34 

After  a  flight  of  108  hours,  the  British  dirigible 
which  left  Scotland  at  2  A.  M.  July  2,  arrived  at  Roose- 
velt Field,  Mineola,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  at  9  A.  M., 
Sunday,  July  6,  after  a  flight  via  Newfoundland  and 
Halifax.  Owing  to  the  strong  head  winds  and  fog 
which  prevailed  the  most  of  the  journey  the  huge  air- 
ship was  delayed  two  days  in  its  flight,  and  there  was 
for  some  time  grave  doubt  that  she  would  arrive  on 


300  AIRCRAFT 

her  own  gasoline,  for  the  supply  was  running  low, 
and  the  aid  of  destroyers  was  requested  by  wireless 
from  the  R-34. 

As  soon  as  the  airship  arrived  over  Roosevelt  Field, 
Major  John  Edward  Maddock  Pritchard  landed  upon 
American  soil,  after  a  parachute  drop  of  2,000  feet. 

This  completed  the  longest  flight  in  history,  the 
distance  covered  being  3,200  miles,  not  counting  the 
mileage  forced  upon  the  flyers  by  adverse  winds.  The 
time  consumed  was  a  few  minutes  more  than  108 
hours.  The  big  airship  brought  over  thirty-one  per- 
sons, one  of  whom  was  a  stowaway,  and  a  tortoise- 
shell  cat. 

A  fortunate  turn  of  the  wind  at  about  2  o'clock 
Sunday  morning  made  the  success  of  the  flight  possible. 
Four  times  on  Friday  night  and  early  Saturday  morn- 
ing heavy  squalls  and  thunder-storms  had  threatened 
to  cripple  or  smash  the  flying  colossus. 

During  the  worst  of  the  storm  on  Friday  night  the 
big  airship  was  suddenly  tossed  aloft  500  feet  and 
pitched  about  like  a  dory  in  a  heavy  sea.  For  a  time 
there  was  great  danger  that  a  vital  part  would  be 
smashed  and  a  landing  forced  on  the  rough  water, 
but  the  workmanship  and  material  in  every  part  of 
the  630-foot  air  giant  proved  flawless,  and  Com- 
mander Scott  got  his  craft  safely  through. 

In  response  to  calls  for  aid  200  men  were  sent  from 
Mineola  to  Montauk  Point,  Long  Island,  where  it 
was  at  first  hoped  the  R-34  might  be  towed  by  the 
torpedo-boats  sent  out  to  aid  the  airship.  The  sudden 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    301 

shift  in  the  wind  decided  Major  Scott  to  continue  the 
flight  to  Mineola  as  originally  planned. 

At  8.35  A.  M.  the  R-34  became  visible  from  Mineola 
Field,  looking  at  first  like  a  splinter  split  off  from  the 
bluish  horizon  in  the  northeast.  A  thin  line  of  light 
beneath  it  made  it  distinguishable  at  first  at  a  distance 
of  about  twenty  miles.  Slowly  it  disengaged  itself 
from  the  blurring  lines  where  the  earth  and  sky  met, 
and  gradually  its  bulk  began  to  develop.  As  it  ap- 
proached the  field  it  rose  for  better  observation,  and 
at  about  9  o'clock  stood  out  in  the  sky  in  its  full  super- 
dreadnought  proportions,  its  painted  skin  responding 
to  the  sun,  which  had  become  bright  a  few  minutes 
before,  and  giving  off  a  dull,  metallic  gleam  between 
lead  and  aluminum  in  tint. 

It  glided  through  the  air  with  such  smoothness  as 
to  give  the  suggestion  that  it  was  motionless  and  the 
spectator  moving.  Like  the  buzz  of  a  midsummer 
noontime,  the  hum  of  its  motors  produced  no  disturb- 
ing effect  on  the  quiet. 

The  ship  approached  the  landing-place  at  a  height  of 
about  2,000  feet,  coming  from  the  east-northeast,  and 
passing  first  over  Mitchel  Field.  It  swung  around  the 
skirts  of  Roosevelt  Field,  while  its  commanders  studied 
the  details  of  the  landing-place.  The  manoeuvres  for 
observation  took  the  dirigible  three  times  around  the 
field  before  she  came  to  a  stop.  After  9.11  it  shut  off 
its  motors,  and  hovered,  like  a  fixed  object,  2,000  feet 
above  the  ground. 

The  time  of  the  R-34  for  the  transatlantic  crossing 


302  AIRCRAFT 

is  slightly  greater  than  the  steamship  record  made  by 
the  Mauretania,  which,  in  September,  1909,  made  the 
trip  from  Queenstown  to  New  York  in  4  days,  10 
hours,  and  41  minutes.  This  is  better  by  approxi- 
mately 2  hours  than  the  time  of  the  dirigible,  which 
took  4  days,  12  hours,  and  some  odd  minutes.  The 
R-34,  however,  starting  from  Edinburgh,  covered  a 
much  greater  distance.  The  rate  of  speed  of  the  R-34 
in  covering  the  3,200  miles  was  29!  knots  per  hour. 

AIRSHIP  LANDED 

The  crew  sent  the  cableoon  and  it  made  a  bulPs-eye 
in  the  drop,  falling  squarely  over  the  main  anchor. 
The  workmen,  who  rushed  to  catch  it  on  the  bound, 
were  flung  to  the  ground  and  rolled  about,  as  if  by  the 
lash  of  a  gigantic  whip,  but  they  subdued  it  in  a  sec- 
ond and  rushed  with  it  to  the  iron  ring.  An  instant 
later  it  was  dragged  through  this  opening  and  the 
gas-bag  was  secured.  A  few  moments  later  the  crews 
of  men  were  pinning  it  down  like  Gulliver,  attaching 
anchors  all  along  the  hull  to  prepared  anchorages  of 
concrete  and  steel,  sunk  deeply  into  the  earth. 

The  British  officers,  accompanied  by  their  American 
guest,  Lieutenant-Commander  Zachary  Lansdowne, 
climbed  out  of  the  gondola  to  receive  the  official  greet- 
ings of  the  government  of  the  United  States  and  the 
hearty  congratulations  of  brother  seamen  and  flyers 
in  American  and  British  uniforms.  Those  who  ex- 
pected to  find  them  worn  and  wan  from  their  unparal- 
leled experience  were  astonished  to  see  them  all  in 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    303 

the  finest  fettle  and  spirits,  ruddy  and  vigorous,  wide- 
awake, and  full  of  fun. 

The  crew  followed  them  to  land,  on  which  none  had 
set  foot  for  nearly  five  days,  all  the  members  being 
in  good  health  and  spirits,  except  one  man,  who  had 
suffered  a  smashed  thumb,  the  only  accident  of  the 
cruise. 

THE  OFFICIAL  LOG  OF  R-34  TRANSATLANTIC 
FLIGHT  BY  BRIGADIER-GENERAL  E.  M.  MAIT- 
LAND,  C.  M.  G.,  D.  C.  O.,  REPRESENTING  THE 
BRITISH  AIR  MINISTRY 

Atlantic  flight  by  rigid  airship  R-34,  from  East 
Fortune,  Scotland,  to  Long  Island,  New  York,  via 
Newfoundland: 

Distances  covered  were  as  follows:  East  Fortune  to 
Trinity  Bay,  Newfoundland,  2,050  sea-miles.  Trinity 
Bay,  Newfoundland,  to  New  York,  1,080  sea-miles. 

It  was  originally  intended  that  this  flight  should  have 
taken  place  at  the  beginning  of  June,  but  owing  to 
the  uncertainty  of  the  Germans  signing  the  peace 
terms  the  British  Admiralty  decided  to  detain  her 
for  an  extended  cruise  up  the  Baltic  and  along  the 
German  coast-line.  This  flight  occupied  56  hours 
under  adverse  weather  conditions,  during  which  time 
an  air  distance  of  roughly  2,400  miles  was  covered. 

At  the  conclusion  of  this  flight  the  ship  was  taken 
over  from  the  Admiralty  by  the  Air  Ministry,  and  the 
airship  was  quickly  overhauled  for  the  journey  to  the 
United  States  of  America. 


304  AIRCRAFT 

The  date  and  time  of  sailing  decided  upon  was 
2  A.  M.  on  the  morning  of  Wednesday,  July  2,  and  the 
press  representatives  were  notified  by  the  Air  Minis- 
try to  be  at  East  Fortune  the  day  previously. 

STARTED  AHEAD  OF  SCHEDULE 

At  1.30  A.  M.  on  the  morning  of  Wednesday,  July  2, 
the  airship  was  taken  from  her  shed  and  actually  took 
the  air  12  minutes  later,  thus  starting  on  her  long 
voyage  exactly  18  minutes  in  advance  of  scheduled 
time. 

1.42  A.  M.,  Wednesday,  July  2. 

The  R-34  slowly  arose  from  the  hands  of  the  land- 
ing party  and  was  completely  swallowed  up  in  the 
low-lying  clouds  at  a  height  of  100  feet.  When  flying 
at  night,  possibly  on  account  of  the  darkness,  there  is 
always  a  feeling  of  loneliness  immediately  after  leaving 
the  ground.  The  loneliness  on  this  occasion  was  ac- 
centuated by  the  faint  cheers  of  the  landing  party 
coming  upward  through  the  mist  long  after  all  signs 
of  the  earth  had  disappeared. 

The  airship  rose  rapidly  1,500  feet,  at  which  height 
she  emerged  from  the  low-lying  clouds  and  headed 
straight  up  the  Firth  of  Forth  toward  Edinburgh. 

A  few  minutes  after  2  o'clock  the  lights  of  Rosyth 
showed  up  through  a  break  in  tjie  clouds,  thus  proving 
brilliantly  that  the  correct  allowance  had  been  made 
for  the  force  and  direction  of  the  wind,  which  was 
twenty  miles  per  hour  from  the  east. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  when  an  airship 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    305 

gets  out  on  a  long-distance  voyage  carrying  her  maxi- 
mum allowance  of  petrol,  she  can  only  rise  to  a  limited 
height  at  the  outset  without  throwing  some  of  it  over- 
board as  ballast,  and  that  as  the  airship  proceeds  on 
her  voyage  she  can,  if  so  desired,  gradually  increase 
her  height  as  the  petrol  is  consumed  by  the  engine. 

An  airship  of  this  type,  when  most  of  her  petrol  is 
consumed,  can  rise  to  a  height  of  about  14,000  feet. 

15.8  TONS  OF  PETROL  AT  START 

For  this  reason  the  next  few  hours  were  about  the 
most  anxious  periods  during  the  flight  for  Major 
Scott,  the  captain  of  the  ship,  who,  owing  to  the  large 
amount  of  petrol  carried  (4,900  gallons,  weighing  15.8 
tons),  had  to  keep  the  ship  as  low  as  possible  and  at 
the  same  time  pass  over  northern  Scotland,  where  the 
hills  rise  to  a  height  of  over  3,000  feet. 

Owing  to  the  stormy  nature  of  the  morning  the  air 
at  1,500  feet — the  height  at  which  the  airship  was 
travelling — was  most  disturbed  and  bumpy,  due  to 
the  wind  being  broken  up  by  the  mountains  to  the 
north,  causing  violent  wind-currents  and  air-pockets. 

The  most  disturbed  conditions  were  met  in  the 
mouth  of  the  Clyde,  south  of  Loch  Lomond,  which, 
surrounded  by  high  mountains,  looked  particularly 
beautiful  in  the  gray  dawn  light. 

The  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde  were 
quietly  passed.  The  north  coast  of  Ireland  appeared 
for  a  time,  and  shortly  afterward  faded  away  as  we 
headed  out  into  the  Atlantic. 


306  AIRCRAFT 

The  various  incidents  of  the  voyage  are  set  down 
quite  simply  as  they  occurred,  and  more  or  less  in  the 
form  of  a  diary.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  write 
them  as  a  connected  story.  It  is  felt  that,  by  record- 
ing each  incident  in  this  way,  most  of  them  trivial,  a 
few  of  vital  importance,  a  true  picture  of  the  voyage 
will  be  obtained. 

Time,  6  A.  M.,  July  2. 

EARLY  SPEED,  38  KNOTS 

Airship  running  on  four  engines  with  1,000  revolu- 
tions. Forward  engine  being  given  a  rest.  Air  speed, 
38  knots — land-miles  per  hour  made  good,  56.7.  Course 
steered,  298  degrees  north,  62  degrees  west.  Course 
made  good,  39  degrees  north,  71  west.  Wind,  north- 
east, 15}^  miles  per  hour.  Height,  1,500  feet.  Large 
banks  of  fleecy  clouds  came  rolling  along  from  the 
Atlantic,  gradually  blotting  out  all  view  of  the  sea.  At 
first  we  were  above  these  clouds,  buf  gradually  they  rose 
higher,  and  we  ploughed  our  way  into  the  middle  of 
them. 

7  A.  M. — Nothing  but  dense  fog,  estimated  by  Harris, 
the  meteorological  officer,  to  go  down  to  within  50 
feet  of  the  water  and  up  to  a  height  of  about  5,000 
feet. 

Suddenly  we  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  sea  through  a 
hole  in  the  clouds,  and  it  is  now  easy  to  see  we  have 
a  slight  drift  to  the  south,  which  was  estimated  by 
both  Scott,  the  captain,  and  Cooke,  the  navigating 
officer. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    307 

A  few  minutes  later  we  find  ourselves  above  the 
clouds,  our  height  still  being  1,500  feet,  and  beneath 
a  cloud  sky  with  clouds  at  about  8,000  feet.  We  are, 
therefore,  in  between  two  layers  of  clouds,  a  condition 
in  which  Alcock  and  Brown  found  themselves  on  more 
than  one  occasion  on  their  recent  flight  from  west  to 
east. 

An  excellent  cloud  horizon  now  presents  itself  on  all 
sides,  of  which  Cooke  at  once  takes  advantage.  These 
observations,  if  the  cloud  horizon  is  quite  flat,  ought  to 
prove  a  valuable  rough  guide,  but  cannot  be  regarded 
as  accurate  unless  one  can  also  obtain  a  check  on  the 
sun  by  day  or  the  moon  and  stars  by  night. 

Cooke  reckons  it  is  easy  to  make  as  much  as  a  fifty- 
mile  error  in  locating  one's  position  when  using  a 
cloud  horizon  as  substitute  for  a  sea  horizon. 

BREAKFAST  AT  1,500  FEET 

7.30  A.  M. — Breakfast  in  crew  space  up  in  the  keel 
consisted  of  cold  ham,  one  hard-boiled  egg  each,  bread 
and  butter,  and  hot  tea.  We  breakfast  in  two  watches, 
generally  about  fifteen  in  each. 

The  first  watch  for  breakfast  was  Scott,  Cooke, 
Pritchard,  Admiralty  airship  expert;  Lansdowne, 
Lieutenant-Commander,  United  States  Airship  Service; 
Shotter,  engineer  officer;  Harris,  meteorological  officer, 
myself,  and  half  the  crew. 

Conversation  during  breakfast  reverted  to  the  re- 
cent flight  up  the  Baltic,  and  in  the  adjoining  com- 
partment the  graphophone  was  entertaining  the  crews 


308  AIRCRAFT 

to  the  latest  jazz  tunes,  such  as  "The  Wild,  Wild 
Women." 

It  might  be  interesting  at  this  stage  to  give  a  com- 
plete list  of  the  crew,  showing  their  various  duties: 

OFFICERS 
SHIP'S  OFFICEES 

Major  G.  H.  Scott,  A.  F.  C.,  Captain. 

Captain  G.  S.  Greenland,  1st  Officer. 

Second  Lieutenant  H.  F.  Luck,  2d  Officer. 

Second  Lieutenant  J.  D.  Shotter,  Engineer  Officer. 

Brigadier-General    E.    M.    Maitland,    C.    M.   G., 
D.  C.  0.,  representing  Air  Ministry. 

Major  J.  E.  M.  Pritchard  (Air  Ministry). 

Lieutenant-Commander    Z.    Lansdowne,    0.  B.  E., 
U.  S.  Naval  Airship  Service. 

Major  G.  G.  H.  Cooke,  D.  S.  C.,  Navigating  Officer. 

Lieutenant  Guy  Harris,  Meteorological  Officer. 

Second  Lieutenant  R.  D.  Durant,  Wireless  Officer. 

W.  0.  W.  R.  Mayes,  Coxswain. 

WARRANT  OFFICERS  AND  MEN 

ENGINEERS 
Flight  Sergeant  Gent. 
Flight  Sergeant  Scull. 
Flight  Sergeant  Riplee. 
Sergeant  Evenden. 
Sergeant  Thirlwall. 
Corporal  Cross. 
Lg.  Air  Craftsman  Graham. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    309 

Corporal  Gray. 
Air  Craftsman  Parker. 
Air  Craftsman  Northeast. 
L.  A.  C.  Mart. 

RIGGERS 

Flight  Sergeant  Robinson. 
Sergeant  Watson. 
Corporal  Burgess. 
Corporal  Smith. 
L.  A.  C.  Foreath. 
L.  A.  C.  Browdie. 

WIRELESS-TELEGRAPH  OPERATORS 

Corporal  Powell. 
A.  C.  Edwards. 

AIR  MINISTRY  SENDS  GREETINGS 

11  A.  M. — Still  ploughing  our  way  through  the  fog 
at  1,300  feet.  Sea  completely  hidden  by  clouds  and 
no  visibility  whatsoever.  Stopped  forward  and  two 
aft  engines,  and  now  running  on  only  two  wing  en- 
gines at  1,600  revolutions.  These  are  giving  us  an  air 
speed  of  30  knots,  or  33.6  miles  per  hour.  This  is  the 
airship's  most  efficient  speed,  as  she  only  consumes  on 
the  two  engines  twenty-five  gallons  of  petrol  per  hour. 

Wind  is  east,  seven  miles  per  hour,  and  so  we  are 
making  good  forty  miles  per  hour  and  resting  three 
engines. 

Cooke  is  now  on  top  of  the  airship  taking  observa- 
tions of  the  sun,  using  the  cloud  horizon  with  a  sex- 


310  AIRCRAFT 

tant.  The  sun  is  visible  to  him  but  not  to  us,  the 
top  of  the  ship  being  eighty-five  feet  above  us  down 
here  in  the  fore-central  cabin. 

Our  position  is  reckoned  to  be  latitude  55  degrees 
10  minutes  north  and  longitude  14  degrees  40  minutes 
west,  which  is  equivalent  to  400  miles  from  our  start- 
ing-point at  East  Fortune  and  200  miles  out  in  the 
Atlantic  from  the  northwest  coast  of  Ireland. 

We  are  in  wireless  touch  with  East  Fortune,  Clif- 
den,  on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  and  Ponta  Delgada, 
Azores,  and  messages  wishing  us  good  luck  are  received 
from  Air  Ministry,  H.  M.  S.  Quern  Elizabeth,  and  others. 

11.45  A.  M. — Lunch — Excellent  beef  stew  and  po- 
tatoes, chocolate,  and  cold  water. 

The  talk,  as  usual,  was  mainly  "shop,"  dealing  with 
such  problems  as  the  distribution  of  air-pressure  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Atlantic,  what  winds  were  likely 
to  be  met  with,  what  fog  we  should  run  into,  the  ad- 
vantages of  directional  wireless  for  navigational  pur- 
poses, cloud  horizons,  and  the  like. 

Scott,  Cooke,  and  Harris,  in  comparing  their  experi- 
ences and  expounding  their  theories,  were  most  in- 
teresting and  illuminating. 

12  NOON. — Watch  off  duty  turned  in  for  their  routine 
four  hours'  sleep  before  coming  on  for  their  next  period 
of  duty — only  two  hours  in  this  case,  as  it  is  the  first 
of  the  two  dog-watches. 

The  sleeping  arrangements  consist  of  a  hammock 
for  each  of  the  men  off  watch  suspended  from  the  main 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    311 

ridge  girder  of  the  triangular  internal  keel  which  runs 
from  end  to  end  of  the  ship.  In  this  keel  are  situated 
the  eighty-one  petrol-tanks,  each  of  seventy-one  gal- 
lons' capacity;  also  the  living  quarters  for  officers  and 
men,  and  storing  arrangements  for  lubricating-oil  for 
the  engines,  water  ballast,  food,  and  drinking-water 
for  the  crew.  The  latter  is  quite  a  considerable  item, 
as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table  of  weights: 

Gallons         Pounds        Tons 

Petrol 4,900       35,300  15.8 

Oil 2,070  .9 

Water 3.0 

Crew  and  baggage ...  4.0 

Spares 550  .2 

Drinking-water 800  . 42 


Total 24.32 

Life  in  the  keel  of  a  large,  rigid  airship  is  by  no 
means  unpleasant.  There  is  very  little  noise  or  vi- 
bration except  when  one  is  directly  over  the  power 
units — a  total  absence  of  wind  and,  except  in  the  early 
hours  of  dawn,  greater  warmth  than  in  the  surrounding 
atmosphere. 

Getting  into  one's  hammock  is  rather  an  acrobatic 
feat,  especially  if  it  is  slung  high,  but  this  becomes 
easy  with  practice;  preventing  oneself  from  falling 
out  is  a  thing  one  must  be  careful  about  in  a  service 
airship  like  the  R-34. 

There  is  only  a  thin  outer  cover  of  fabric  on  the 


312  AIRCRAFT 

under  side  of  the  keel  on  each  side  of  the  walking  way, 
and  the  luckless  individual  who  tips  out  of  his  ham- 
mock would  in  all  probability  break  right  through 
this  and  soon  find  himself  in  the  Atlantic. 

It  is  surprising  the  amount  of  exercise  one  can  get 
on  board  an  airship  of  this  size.  The  keel  is  about 
600  feet  long,  and  one  is  constantly  running  about 
from  one  end  to  the  other.  There  are  also  steps  in  a 
vertical  ladder  at  the  top  of  the  ship  for  those  who 
feel  energetic  or  have  duty  up  there.  By  the  time  it 
becomes  one's  turn  to  go  to  bed  one  generally  finds  one 
is  very  sleepy,  and  the  warmth  of  one's  sleeping-bag 
and  hum  of  the  engines  soon  send  one  to  sleep. 

3.15  P.  M. — Sea  now  visible  at  intervals  through  the 
clouds — a  deep  blue  in  color  with  a  big  swell  on. 
Our  shadow  on  the  water  helps  us  to  measure  our 
drift  angle,  which  both  Scott  and  Cooke  worked  out 
to  be  21  degrees.  Running  on  the  forward  and  two 
aft  engines,  resting  the  two  wing  engines.  Speed — 
making  forty-nine  miles  per  hour. 

Durant,  the  wireless  officer,  reports  he  has  just  been 
speaking  to  St.  John's,  N.  F. — Rather  faint  but  quite 
clear  signals.  As  we  are  still  in  touch  with  East 
Fortune  and  Clifden,  and  have  been  exchanging  sig- 
nals with  the  Azores  since  reaching  the  Irish  coast, 
our  communications  seem  to  be  quite  satisfactory. 

Remarkable  rainbow  effects  on  the  clouds.  One 
complete  rainbow  encircled  the  airship  itself  and  the 
other,  a  smaller  one,  encircled  the  shadow.  Both  are 
very  vivid  in  their  coloring. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    313 

3.45  p.  M. — Excellent  tea  consisting  of  bread  and 
butter  and  green-gage  jam,  also  two  cups  of  scalding 
hot  tea,  which  had  been  boiled  over  the  exhaust-pipe 
cooker  fitted  to  the  forward  engine. 

SEE  LITTLE  OF  OCEAN 

Fruitarian  cake  was  also  tried  for  the  first  time — 
rather  sickly  to  taste  but  very  nourishing.  The  whole 
assisted  by  Miss  Lee  White  on  the  gramophone.  We 
would  one  and  all  give  anything  for  a  smoke.  Green- 
land, the  first  officer  of  the  ship,  is  vainly  trying  to 
discover  the  culprit  who  used  his  tooth-brush  for 
stirring  the  mustard  at  lunch. 

4.30  P.  M. — Still  in  fog  and  low  clouds  and  no  sea 
visible.  We  have  hardly  seen  any  sign  of  the  Atlantic 
since  leaving  the  Irish  coast,  and  we  are  beginning 
to  wonder  if  we  shall  see  it  at  all  the  whole  way 
across. 

5  P.  M. — Tramp  steamer  S.  S.  Ballygally  Head,  out- 
ward bound  from  Belfast,  destination  Montreal,  picked 
up  our  wireless  on  their  Marconi  spark  set,  which  has 
a  range  of  thirty  miles  only.  She  heard  us  but  didn't 
see  us,  as  we  were  well  above  and  completely  hidden 
by  the  clouds.  She  gave  her  position  as  latitude  54 
degrees  30  minutes  north,  longitude  18  degrees  20 
minutes  west,  and  reported  as  follows: 

"Steering  south  80  west  true,  wind  north,  barometer 
30.10,  overcast,  clouds  low. 

"(Signed)  SUFFREN,  Master." 


314  AIRCRAFT 

They  were  very  surprised  and  most  interested  to 
hear  we  were  R-34  bound  for  New  York,  and  wished 
us  every  possible  luck. 

5.30  P.  M. — Messages  were  received  from  both  H.  M. 
S.  battle-cruisers  Tiger  and  Renvwrij  which  had  been 
previously  sent  by  the  Admiralty  out  into  the  Atlantic 
to  assist  us  with  weather-reports  and  general  observa- 
tion. They  reported  respectively  as  follows: 

H.  M.  S.  Tiger.— "Position  36  degrees  50  minutes 
north,  36  degrees  50  minutes  west,  1,027  millibars, 
falling  slowly,  thick  fog." 

H.  M.  S.  Renown. — "Position  60  degrees  north,  25 
west,  1,027  millibars,  falling  slowly,  cloudy,  visibility 
four  miles." 

Harris's  deductions  from  these  reports  were  to  the 
effect  that  there  was  no  steep  gradient,  and  that  there- 
fore there  was  no  likelihood  of  any  strong  wind  in  that 
part  of  the  Atlantic. 

SET  CLOCK  BACK  HALF-HOUR 

6  P.  M. — Scott  increases  height  to  2,000  feet,  and  at 
this  height  we  find  ourselves  well  over  the  clouds  and 
with  a  bright-blue  sky  above  us.  The  view  is  an  en- 
chanting one — as  far  as  one  can  see  a  vast  ocean  of 
white  fleecy  clouds,  ending  in  the  most  perfect  cloud 
horizons. 

Two  particularly  fine  specimens  of  windy  cirrus 
clouds,  of  which  Pritchard  promptly  obtained  pho- 
tographs, appear  on  our  port  beam,  also  some  "cirrus 
ventosus"  clouds  (little  curly  clouds  like  a  blackcock's 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    315 

tail-feathers),  all  of  which  Harris  interprets  as  a  first 
indication  and  infallible  sign  of  a  depression  coming 
up  from  the  south. 

We  hope  that  this  depression,  when  it  comes,  may 
help  us,  provided  we  have  crossed  its  path  before  it 
reaches  us.  If  we  can  do  this  we  may  be  helped  along 
by  the  easterly  wind  on  the  northwesterly  side  of  the 
depression. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  as  yet  we  have  re- 
ceived no  notice  of  this  depression  coming  up  from  the 
south  in  any  weather-reports. 

6.40  P.  M. — Put  back  clock  one-half  an  hour  to  cor- 
rect Greenwich  mean  time.  Time  now  6.10,  P.  M. 
Position:  Latitude  53  degrees  50  minutes  north; 
longitude  20  degrees  west. 

We  have  covered  610  sea-miles,  measured  in  a  direct 
line,  in  17  hours,  at  an  average  speed  of  36  knots,  or 
40  miles  per  hour.  Depth  of  Atlantic  at  this  point, 
1,500  fathoms.  At  this  rate,  if  all  goes  well  and  if  that 
depression  from  the  south  doesn't  interfere,  we  should 
see  St.  John's — If  visible  and  not  covered  in  fog  as  it 
usually  is — about  midnight  to-morrow,  July  3. 

6.55  P.  M. — Wireless  message  from  Air  Ministry  via 
Clifden  states: 

"Conditions  unchanged  in  British  Isles.  Anti- 
cyclone persistent  in  Eastern  Atlantic — a  new  depres- 
sion entering  Atlantic  from  south." 

This  confirms  Harris's  forecast  and  is  an  admirable 
proof  of  the  value  of  cloud  forecasting. 


316  AIRCRAFT 

SEA  AND  SKY  INVISIBLE 

7  P.  M. — The  clouds  have  risen  to  our  height  and  we 
are  now  driving  away  through  them  with  no  signs  of 
the  sky  above  or  the  sea  underneath.    Scott  reckons 
the  wind  is  northeast  by  east  and  helping  us  slightly. 
Airship  now  very  heavy  owing  to  change  in  tempera- 
ture and  12  degrees  down  by  the  stern.    Running  on 
all  five  engines  at  1,600  revolutions,  height  3,000  feet. 

8  P.  M. — We  are  just  on  top  of  the  clouds,  alternately 
in  the  sun  and  then  plunging  through  thick  banks  of 
clouds.    The  sun  is  very  low  down  on  the  western 
horizon  and  we  are  steering  straight  for  it,  making 
Pritchard  at  the  elevators  curse  himself  for  not  hav- 
ing brought  tinted  glasses.    Ship  now  on  an  even  keel. 

8.30  p.  M. — Scott  decided  to  go  down  underneath 
the  clouds  and  increases  speed  on  all  engines  to  1,800 
revolutions  to  do  so.  Dark,  cold,  and  wet  in  the  clouds, 
and  we  shut  all  windows. 

SEA  1,500  FEET  BELOW 

We  see  the  sea  at  1,500  feet  between  patches  of 
cloud.  Rather  bumpy. 

'We  now  find  ourselves  between  two  layers  of  clouds, 
the  top  layer  1,000  feet  above  us  and  the  lower  layer 
500  feet  below,  with  occasional  glimpses  of  sea. 

The  sun  is  now  setting  and  gradually  disappears 
below  the  lower  cloud  horizon,  throwing  a  wonderful 
pink  glow  on  the  white  clouds  in  every  direction. 
Course  steered,  320  degrees.  Course  made  good,  299 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    317 

degrees.    Air  speed,  44  knots;  speed  made  good,  55 
miles  per  hour. 

All  through  this  first  night  in  the  Atlantic  the  or- 
dinary airship  routine  of  navigating,  steering,  and  ele- 
vating, also  maintaining  the  engines  in  smooth-running 
order,  goes,  watch  and  watch,  as  in  the  daytime. 

The  night  is  very  dark.  The  airship,  however,  is 
lighted  throughout,  a  much  enlarged  lighting  system 
having  been  fitted.  All  instruments  can  be  indi- 
vidually illuminated  as  required,  and  in  case  of  failure 
at  the  lighting  system  all  figures  and  indicators  are 
radiomized. 

LIGHTS  Nor  NEEDED 

The  radium  paint  used  is  so  luminous  that  in  most 
cases  the  lighting  installation  is  unnecessary. 

8.20  A.  M.,  Thursday,  July  3. — The  clock  has  been 
put  back  another  hour  to  correct  our  time  to  Green- 
wich mean  time.  Position:  Longitude  35  degrees  60 
minutes  west;  latitude  53  degrees  north. 

Cooke  got  position  by  observation  on  sun  and  a 
good  cloud  horizon,  and  considers  it  accurate  to  within 
thirty  and  forty  miles. 

Our  position  is  over  the  west-bound  steamship  route 
from  Cape  Race  to  the  Clyde  and  momentarily  cross- 
ing the  east-bound  route  from  Belle  Isle  to  Plymouth. 

We  are  well  over  half-way  between  Ireland  and 
Newfoundland  and  are  back  again  on  the  great  circle 
route,  having  been  slightly  to  the  south  of  it,  owing  to 
the  drift  effect  of  a  northerly  wind. 

Good  weather-report  from  St.  John's. 


318  AIRCRAFT 

SPEAKS  TO  STEAMSHIP 

12.45  P.  M. — Durant  is  speaking  S.  S.  Canada  on 
our  spark  wireless  set,  so  there  may  be  a  chance  of 
our  seeing  her  shortly,  as  the  sea  is  temporarily  visible. 
The  second  wireless  operator  obtains  his  direction  on 
our  directional  wireless  so  that  we  may  know  in  what 
direction  to  look  for  her.  All  we  know  at  the  moment 
is  that  she  is  somewhere  within  120  miles. 

Captain  David,  in  command,  wishes  us  a  safe  voy- 
age. We  gaze  through  our  glasses  in  her  direction, 
but  she  is  just  over  the  horizon. 

2  P.  M. — Slight  trouble  with  starboard  amidships 
engine — cracked  cylinder's  water-jacket.  Shotter,  al- 
ways equal  to  the  occasion,  made  a  quick  and  safe 
repair  with  a  piece  of  copper  sheeting,  and  the  entire 
supply  of  the  ship's  chewing-gum  had  to  be  chewed 
by  himself  and  two  engineers  before  being  applied. 

4.30  p.  M. — We  are  now  on  the  Canadian  summer 
route  of  steamers  bound  for  the  St.  Lawrence  via 
Belle  Isle  Strait  and  over  the  well-known  Labrador 
current.  There  are  already  indications  of  these  cold 
currents  in  the  fog  which  hangs  immediately  above 
the  surface  of  the  water. 

HAERIS  HURT;  NOT  SERIOUSLY 

Scott  and  Cooke  spend  much  time  at  chart-table 
with  protractors,  dividers,  stop-watches,  and  many 
navigational  text-books,  measuring  angles  of  drift  and 
calculating  course  made  good. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    319 

Aerial  navigation  is  more  complicated  than  naviga- 
tion on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  but  there  is  no  reason 
why  when  we  know  more  about  the  air  and  its  peculi- 
arities it  should  not  be  made  just  as  accurate. 

5.00  p.  M. — Harris  unwisely  shuts  his  hand  on  door 
of  wireless  cabin — painful  but  not  serious.  Flow  of 
language  not  audible  to  me,  as  the  forward  engine  hap- 
pened to  be  running. 

6  to  7  P.  M. — We  are  gradually  getting  farther  and 
farther  into  the  shallow  depression  which  was  reported 
yesterday  coming  up  from  the  South  Atlantic.  For 
the  last  four  hours  the  sea  has  been  rising  and  now  the 
wind  is  south-southeast,  forty-five  miles  an  hour. 
Visibility  only  a  half-mile.  Very  rough  sea  and  tor- 
rents of  rain.  In  spite  of  this  the  ship  is  remarkably 
steady. 

CLIMBS  THROUGH  DEPRESSION 

At  8  p.  M.  Scott  decides  to  climb  right  through  it, 
and  we  evidently  came  out  over  the  top  of  it  at  3,400 
feet. 

8.30  P.  M. — We  have  now  passed  the  centre  of  the 
depression,  exactly  as  Harris  foretold.  The  rain  has 
ceased  and  we  are  travelling  quite  smoothly  again. 

To  the  west  the  clouds  have  lifted  and  we  see  some 
extraordinarily  interesting  sky — black,  angry  clouds 
giving  place  to  clouds  of  a  gray-mouse  color,  then  a 
bright  salmon-pink  clear  sky,  changing  lower  down 
the  horizon  to  darker  clouds  with  a  rich  golden  lining 
as  the  sun  sinks  below  the  surface.  The  sea  is  not 


320  AIRCRAFT 

visible,  and  is  covered  by  a  fluffy  gray  feather-bed  of 
clouds,  slightly  undulating  and  extending  as  far  as 
the  eye  can  reach.  The  moon  is  just  breaking  through 
the  black  clouds  immediately  above  it. 

On  the  east  we  see  the  black,  ominous  depression 
from  which  we  have  just  emerged,  while  away  more 
to  the  south  the  cloud-bed  over  which  we  are  passing 
seems  to  end  suddenly  and  merge  into  the  horizon. 

VALUABLE  METEOROLOGICAL  DATA 

We  are  getting  some  valuable  meteorological  data 
on  this  flight  without  a  doubt,  and  each  fresh  phe- 
nomenon as  it  appears  is  instantly  explained  by  the 
ever-alert  Harris,  who  has  a  profound  knowledge  of 
his  subject. 

9  p.  M. — One  of  the  engineers  has  reported  sick — 
complains  of  feverishness. 

A  stowaway  has  just  been  discovered,  a  cat  smug- 
gled on  board  by  one  of  the  crew  for  luck.  It  is  a 
very  remarkable  fact  that  nearly  every  member  of 
the  crew  has  a  mascot  of  some  description,  from  the 
engineer  officer,  who  wears  one  of  his  wife's  silk  stock- 
ings as  a  muffler  around  his  neck,  to  Major  Scott,  the 
captain,  with  a  small  gold  charm  called  "Thumbs 
up." 

We  have  two  carrier-pigeons  on  board,  which  it  has 
been  decided  not  to  use.  Anyway,  whether  we  release 
them  or  not,  they  can  claim  to  be  the  first  two  pigeons 
to  fly  the  Atlantic. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    321 

SUNRISE 

4.30  A.  M.,  Friday,  July  4. — Wonderful  sunrise — the 
different  colors  being  the  softest  imaginable,  just  like 
a  wash  drawing. 

7  A.  M. — Height,  1,000  feet.  Bright,  blue  sky  above, 
thin  fog  partly  obscuring  the  sea  beneath  us,  sea 
moderate,  big  swell. 

The  fog-bank  appears  to  end  abruptly  ten  miles  or 
so  away  toward  the  south,  where  the  sea  appears  to 
be  clear  of  fog  and  a  very  deep  blue. 

Standing  out  conspicuously  in  this  blue  patch  of 
sea  we  see  an  enormous  white  iceberg.  The  sun  is 
shining  brightly  on  its  steep  sides,  and  we  estimate  it 
as  roughly  300  yards  square  and  150  feet  high.  As 
these  icebergs  usually  draw  about  six  times  as  much 
water  as  their  height,  we  wondered  whether  she  was 
aground,  as  the  depth  of  water  at  that  point  is  only 
about  150  fathoms. 

Another  big  iceberg  can  just  be  seen  in  the  dim 
distance.  These  are  the  only  two  objects  of  any  kind, 
sort,  or  description  we  have  as  yet  seen  on  this  journey. 

8.15  A.  M. 

OVER  LARGE  ICE-FIELD 

Fog  still  clinging  to  the  surface  of  the  water;  water 
evidently  must  be  very  cold.  Extraordinary  crimpy, 
wavelike  appearance  of  clouds  rolling  up  from  the 
north  underneath  it.  Harris  has  never  seen  this  be- 
fore. Pritchard  took  photograph. 

On  port  beam  there  is  a  long  stretch  of  clear-blue 


322  AIRCRAFT 

sea  sandwiched  in  between  wide  expanses  of  fog  on 
either  side,  looking  just  like  a  blue  river  flowing  be- 
tween two  wide  snow-covered  banks.  Cause — a  warm 
current  of  water  which  prevents  cloud  from  hanging 
over  it.  This  well  illustrated  the  rule  that  over  cold 
currents  of  water  the  clouds  will  cling  to  the  surface. 

9  A.  M. — We  are  now  over  a  large  ice-field  and  the 
sea  is  full  of  enormous  pieces  of  ice — small  bergs  in 
themselves.  The  ice  is  blue-green  under  water,  with 
frozen  snow  on  top. 

A  message  reaches  us  from  the  Governor  of  New- 
foundland. 

"To  General  Maitland,  officers  and  crew,  R-34: 
"On  behalf  of  Newfoundland  I  greet  you  as  you 

pass  us  on  your  enterprising  journey. 

"HARRIS,  Governor." 
Replied  to  as  follows: 

"To  Governor  of  Newfoundland: 

"Major  Scott,  officers  and  crew,  R-34,  send  grate- 
ful thanks  for  kind  message  with  which  I  beg  to  asso- 
ciate myself. 

"GENERAL  MAITLAND." 

12.50  p.  M. 

LAND  SIGHTED  BY  SCOTT 

Land  in  sight.  First  spotted  by  Scott  on  starboard 
beam.  A  few  small  rocky  islands  visible  for  a  minute 
or  two  through  the  clouds  and  instantly  swallowed  up 
again. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    323 

Altered  course  southwest  to  have  a  closer  look  at 
them.  Eventually  made  them  out  to  be  the  north- 
west coast-line  of  Trinity  Bay,  Newfoundland. 

Our  time  from  Rathlin  Island — the  last  piece  of 
land  we  crossed  above  the  north  coast  of  Ireland — to 
north  coast  of  Trinity  Bay,  Newfoundland,  is  exactly 
fifty-nine  hours. 

We  are  crossing  Newfoundland  at  1,500  feet  in  thick 
fog,  which  gradually  clears  as  we  get  farther  inland. 
A  very  rocky  country  with  large  forests  and  lakes,  and 
for  the  most  part  no  traces  of  habitation  anywhere. 

Message  from  St.  John's  to  say  that  Raynham  was 
up  in  his  machine  to  greet  us.  We  replied,  giving  our 
position. 

3  P.  M. — Again  enveloped  in  dense  fog.  Message 
from  H.  M.  S.  Sentinel  giving  us  our  position.  We 
are  making  good  thirty-eight  or  forty  knots  and  head- 
ing for  Fortune  Harbor. 

FRENCH  FLAG  DIPPED 

4.30  p.  M. — We  have  passed  out  of  Fortune  Harbor, 
with  its  magnificent  scenery  and  azure-blue  sea  dotted 
with  little  white  sailing  ships,  and  are  now  over  the 
two  French  islands,  Miquelon  and  St.  Pierre,  and  steer- 
ing a  course  for  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.  The  French 
flag  was  flying  at  St.  Pierre  and  was  duly  dipped  as 
we  passed  over. 

7.15  p.  M. — Passed  over  tramp  S.  S.  Seal  bound  for 
Sydney,  Nova  Scotia,  from  St.  John's,  the  first  we  have 
seen. 


324  AIRCRAFT 

8.15  P.  M.— Clear  weather.  Sea  moderate.  Making 
good  thirty  miles  per  hour  on  three  engines.  Northern 
point  of  Cape  Breton  Island,  Nova  Scotia,  just  coming 
into  sight.  Lighthouse  four  flashes.  We  should  make 
Halifax  2.30  A.  M.  to-morrow. 

Saturday,  July  5,  2.30  A.  M.— Very  dark,  clear  night. 
Lights  of  Whitehaven  show  up  brightly  on  our  star- 
board beam  and  we  make  out  the  lights  of  a  steamer 
passing  us  to  the  east.  Strong  head  wind  against  us. 
Making  no  appreciable  headway. 

LANSDOWNE  ASKS  FOB  DESTROYER 

Lieutenant-Commander  Lansdowne,  United  States 
Naval  Airship  Service,  sends  signal  on  behalf  of  R-34 
to  United  States  authorities  at  Washington  and 
Boston  to  send  destroyer  to  take  us  in  tow  in  case  we 
should  run  out  of  petrol  during  the  night. 

The  idea  is  we  would  then  be  towed  by  the  de- 
stroyer during  the  hours  of  darkness,  and  at  dawn  cast 
off  and  fly  to  Long  Island'  under  our  own  power. 
Let  us  hope  this  won't  be  necessary. 

It  is  now  raining  and  foggy,  which  is  the  kind  of 
weather  that  suits  us  now,  as  rain  generally  means  no 
wind. 

3  P.  M. — Passed  Haute  Island  in  Fundy  Bay. 

3.30  P.  M. — For  some  little  while  past  there  had  been 
distinct  evidences  of  electrical  disturbances.  Atmos- 
pherics became  very  bad  and  a  severe  thunder-storm 
was  seen  over  the  Canadian  coast,  moving  south  down 
the  coast. 


TRANSATLANTIC    FLIGHT    325 

Scott  turned  east  off  his  course  to  dodge  the  storm, 
putting  on  all  engines.  In  this,  fortunately  for  us, 
he  was  successful,  and  we  passed  through  the  outer 
edge  of  it.  We  had  a  very  bad  time,  indeed,  and  it  is 
quite  the  worst  experience  from  a  weather  point  of 
view  that  any  of  us  have  yet  experienced  in  the  air. 

WONDERFUL  CLOUDS  PHOTOGRAPHED 

During  the  storm  some  wonderful  specimens  of 
cumulo-mammatus  were  seen  and  photographed. 
These  clouds  always  indicate  a  very  highly  perturbed 
state  of  atmosphere  and  look  rather  like  a  bunch  of 
grapes.  The  clouds  drooped  into  small  festoons. 

7.30  P.  M. — We  are  now  in  clear  weather  again  and 
have  left  Nova  Scotia  well  behind  us  and  are  heading 
straight  for  New  York. 

Particularly  fine  electrical-disturbance  type  of  sun- 
set. 

9.30  P.  M. — Another  thunder-storm.  Again  we  have 
to  change  our  course  to  avoid  it,  and  as  every  gallon 
of  petrol  is  worth  its  weight  in  gold,  it  almost  breaks 
our  hearts  to  have  to  lengthen  the  distance  to  get  clear 
of  these  storms. 

July  6,  Sunday,  4  A.  M.-— Sighted  American  soil  at 
Chatham. 

4.25  A.  M. — South  end  of  Mahoney  Island.  Scott 
is  wondering  whether  petrol  will  allow  him  to  go  to 
New  York  or  whether  it  would  not  be  more  prudent 
to  land  at  Montauk. 

5.30    A.M.— Passing    over    Martha's    Vineyard— a 


326  AIRCRAFT 

lovely  island  and  beautifully  wooded.  Scott  decided 
he  could  just  get  through  to  our  landing-field  at  Hazel- 
hurst  Field,  but  that  there  would  not  be  enough  petrol 
to  fly  over  New  York.  Very  sad,  but  no  alternative. 
We  will  fly  over  New  York  on  start  of  our  return 
journey  on  Tuesday  night,  weather  and  circumstances 
permitting. 

Landed  1.54  p.  M.  Greenwich  mean  time,  or  9.54 
A.  M.  U.  S.  A.  summer  time,  at  Hazelhurst  Field, 
Long  Island. 

Total  time  on  entire  voyage — 108  hours,  12  minutes. 


APPENDIX  I 

UNITED  STATES  AIRCRAFT  AND  ENGINE  PRO- 
DUCTION FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES   AIR 
SERVICE 

The  best  rapid  survey  of  the  organization  of  the  United 
States  Air  Service  and  the  part  which  it  played  in  the  Great 
War,  as  well  as  statistics  touching  upon  the  materials  used  in 
aircraft  production,  the  number  of  planes  and  engines  made, 
and  also  the  number  of  machines  used  for  training  purposes, 
and  actually  put  into  service  at  the  front,  is  contained  in  the 
following  extracts  from  the  reports  of  Secretary  Baker,  Jus- 
tice Charles  E.  Hughes,  General  Pershing,  and  Major-General 
William  L.  Kenly. 

SECRETARY  BAKER'S  AIR  SERVICE  REPORT 

In  his  annual  report  for  1918,  released  December  5,  the  Sec- 
retary of  War  reported  on  the  Air  Service  as  follows: 

Am  SERVICE 

ORGANIZATION 

The  Aviation  Section  of  the  Signal  Corps,  which  had  charge  of  the 
production  and  operation  of  military  aircraft  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
war,  was  created  on  July  18,  1914.  To  assist  in  outlining  America's 
aviation  program,  the  Aircraft  Production  Board  was  appointed  by 
the  Council  of  National  Defense  in  May,  1917.  In  October,  1917,  the 
Aircraft  Board,  acting  in  an  advisory  capacity  to  the  Signal  Corps  and 
the  Navy,  was  created  by  act  of  Congress.  In  April,  1918,  the  Aviation 
Section  of  the  Signal  Corps  was.  separated  into  two  distinct  depart- 
ments, Mr.  John  D.  Ryan  being  placed  in  charge  of  aircraft  production 

327 


328  APPENDIX    I 

and  Brig.-Gen.  W.  L.  Kenly  in  charge  of  military  aeronautics.  Under 
the  powers  granted  in  the  Overman  Bill,  a  further  reorganization  was 
effected  by  Presidential  order  in  May,  1918,  whereby  aircraft  produc- 
tion and  military  aeronautics  were  completely  divorced  from  the 
Signal  Corps  and  established  in  separate  bureaus.  This  arrangement 
continued  until  August,  when  the  present  air  service,  under  Mr.  Ryan 
as  Second  Assistant  Secretary  of  War,  was  established,  combining  under 
one  head  the  administration  of  aviation  personnel  and  equipment. 


RAW  MATERIALS  SECURED 

One  of  the  most  important  problems  which  confronted  the  aircraft 
organization  from  the  start  was  the  obtaining  of  sufficient  spruce  and 
fir  for  ourselves -and  our  allies.  To  facilitate  the  work,  battalions  were 
organized  under  military  discipline  and  placed  in  the  forests  of  the 
western  coast.  A  government  plant  and  kiln  were  erected  to  cut  and 
dry  lumber  before  shipment,  thus  saving  valuable  freight  space.  To 
November  11,  1918,  the  date  the  armistice  was  signed,  the  total  quan- 
tity of  spruce  and  fir  shipped  amounted  to  approximately  174,000,000 
feet,  of  which  more  than  two-thirds  went  to  the  Allies. 

The  shortage  of  linen  stimulated  the  search  for  a  substitute  possessing 
the  qualities  necessary  in  fabric  used  for  covering  aeroplane  wings. 
Extensive  experiments  were  made  with  a  cotton  product  which  proved 
so  successful  that  it  is  now  used  for  all  types  of  training  and  service 
planes. 

To  meet  the  extensive  demands  for  a  high-grade  lubricating  oil, 
castor  beans  were  imported  from  India  and  a  large  acreage  planted  in 
this  country.  Meanwhile  research  work  with  mineral  oils  was  carried 
on  intensively,  with  the  result  that  a  lubricant  was  developed  which 
proved  satisfactory  in  practically  every  type  of  aeroplane  motor,  ex- 
cept the  rotary  motor,  in  which  castor  oil  is  still  preferred. 

PRODUCTION  OP  TRAINING  PLANES  AND  ENGINES 

When  war  was  declared  the  United  States  possessed  less  than  300 
training  planes,  all  of  inferior  types.  Deliveries  of  improved  models 
were  begun  as  early  as  June,  1917.  Up  to  November  11,  1918,  over 
5,300  had  been  produced,  including  1,600  of  a  type  which  was  tem- 
porarily abandoned  on  account  of  unsatisfactory  engines. 

Planes  for  advanced  training  purposes  were  produced  in  quantity 
early  in  1918;  up  to  the  signing  of  the  armistice  about  2,500  were  de- 
livered. Approximately  the  same  number  was  purchased  overseas  for 
training  the  units  with  the  Expeditionary  Force. 

Several  new  models,  to  be  used  for  training  pursuit  pilots,  are  under 
development. 


APPENDIX    I  329 

Within  three  months  after  the  declaration  of  war  extensive  orders 
were  placed  for  two  types  of  elementary  training  engines.  Quantity 
production  was  reached  within  a  short  time.  In  all  about  10,500  have 
been  delivered,  sufficient  to  constitute  a  satisfactory  reserve  for  some 
time  to  come. 

Of  the  advanced  training  engines,  the  three  important  models  were 
of  foreign  design,  and  the  success  achieved  in  securing  quantity  produc- 
tion is  a  gratifying  commentary  on  the  manufacturing  ability  of  this 
country.  The  total  production  up  to  November  11  was  approximately 
5,200. 

PRODUCTION  OP  SERVICE  PLANES 

The  experience  acquired  during  the  operations  on  the  Mexican  bor- 
der demonstrated  the  unsuitability  of  the  planes  then  used  by  the 
American  Army.  Shortly  after  the  declaration  of  war,  a  commission 
was  sent  abroad  to  select  types  of  foreign  service  planes  to  be  put  into 
production  in  this  country.  We  were  confronted  with  the  necessity 
of  redesigning  these  models  to  take  the  Liberty  motor,  as  foreign  engine 
production  was  insufficient  to  meet  the  great  demands  of  the  Allies. 
The  first  successful  type  of  plane  to  come  into  quantity  production 
was  a  modification  of  the  British  De  Haviland  4— -an  observation  and 
day  bombing  plane.  The  first  deliveries  were  made  in  February,  1918. 
In  May,  production  began  to  increase  rapidly,  and  by  October  a  monthly 
output  of  1,200  had  been  reached.  Approximately  1,900  were  shipped 
to  the  Expeditionary  Force  prior  to  the  termination  of  hostilities. 

The  Handley  Page  night  bomber,  used  extensively  by  the  British, 
was  redesigned  to  take  two  Liberty  motors.  Parts  for  approximately 
100  planes  have  been  shipped  to  England  for  assembly. 

Table  20  shows  the  status  of  American  production  of  service  planes 
by  quarterly  periods. 

Table  20. — Service  planes  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1918: 

Jan.  31  to     April  1  to      July  1  to        Oct.  Tto 
Name  of  plane         Mar.  31        June  30         Sept.  30          Nov.  8        Total 

De  Haviland  4....         14  515  1,165  1,493        3,187 

Handley  Page ...  100  1  101 

A  total  of  2,676  pursuit,  observation,  and  day  bombing  planes,  with 
spare  engines,  were  delivered  to  the  Expeditionary  Force  by  the  French 
Government  for  the  equipment  of  our  forces  overseas. 

Considerable  progress  was  made  in  the  adaptation  of  other  types  of 
foreign  planes  to  the  American-made  engines,  and  in  the  development 
of  new  designs.  The  U.  S.  D.  9A,  embodying  some  improvements  over 
the  De  Haviland  4,  was  expected  to  come  into  quantity  production  in 
the  near  future.  The  Bristol  Fighter,  a  British  plane,  was  redesigned 


330  APPENDIX    I 

to  take  the  Liberty  8  and  the  Hispano-Suiza  300  h.  p.  engines.  A 
force  of  Italian  engineers  and  skilled  workmen  was  brought  to  America 
to  redesign  the  Caproni  night  bomber  to  take  three  Liberty  motors, 
and  successful  trial  flights  of  this  machine  have  been  made. 

Several  new  models  are  under  experimentation.  Chief  of  these  is 
the  Le  P6re  two-seater  fighter,  designed  around  the  Liberty  motor, 
the  performance  of  which  is  highly  satisfactory.  Several  of  these  planes 
were  sent  overseas  to  be  tested  at  the  front. 


PRODUCTION  OF  SERVICE  ENGINES 

In  view  of  the  rapid  progress  in  military  aeronautics,  the  necessity 
for  the  development  of  a  high-powered  motor  adaptable  to  American 
methods  of  quantity  production  was  early  recognized.  The  result  of 
the  efforts  to  meet  this  need  was  the  Liberty  motor — America's  chief 
contribution  to  aviation,  and  one  of  the  great  achievements  of  the  war. 
After  this  motor  emerged  from  the  experimental  stage,  production  in- 
creased with  great  rapidity,  the  October  output  reaching  4,200,  or  nearly 
one-third  of  the  total  production  up  to  the  signing  of  the  armistice. 
The  factories  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  this  motor,  and  their 
total  production  to  November  8,  are  listed  in  Table^21. 

Table  21. — Production  of  Liberty  motor  to  November  8,  1918,  by 
factories: 

Packard  Motor  Car  Co 4,654 

Lincoln  Motor  Corporation 3,720 

Ford  Motor  Co 3,025 

General  Motors  Corporation 1,554 

Nordyke  &  Marmon  Co 433 


Total 13,386 

Of  this  total,  9,834  were  high-compression,  or  army  type,  and  3,572 
low-compression,  or  navy  type,  the  latter  being  used  in  seaplanes  and 
large  night  bombers. 

In  addition  to  those  installed  in  planes,  about  3,500  Liberty  engines 
were  shipped  overseas,  to  be  used  as  spares  and  for  delivery  to  the 
Allies. 

Other  types  of  service  engines,  including  the  Hispano-Suiza  300  h.  p., 
the  Bugatti,  and  the  Liberty  8-cylinder,  were  under  development  when 
hostilities  ceased.  The  Hispano-Suiza  180  h.  p.  had  already  reached 
quantity  production.  Nearly  500  engines  of  this  type  were  produced, 
about  half  of  which  were  shipped  to  France  and  England  for  use  in 
foreign-built  pursuit  planes. 


APPENDIX    I  331 

Table  22  gives  a  re*sume*  of  the  production  of  service  engines  by  quar- 
terly periods: 

Table  22. — Production  of  service  engines  in  1918. 


Name  of  engine 
Liberty  12,  Army.  . 
Liberty  12,  Navy.  . 
Hispano-Suiza  180 
h.p... 

Jan.  1  to 
Mar.  31 

122 
142 

Apr.  1  to 
June  30 

1,493 
633 

July  1  to 
Sept.  30 

4,116 
1,710 

185 

Oct.  1  to 
Nov.  8 

4,093 
1,087 

284 

Total 
9,824 
3,572 

469 

IMPROVEMENT  IN  INSTRUMENTS  AND   ACCESSORIES 

Few  facilities  existed  for  the  manufacture  of  many  of  the  delicate 
instruments  and  intricate  mechanisms  going  into  the  equipment  of 
every  battle-plane.  The  courage  and  determination  with  which  these 
most  difficult  problems  were  met  and  solved  will  form  one  of  the  bright 
pages  in  the  archives  of  American  industry. 

One  of  the  most  important  outgrowths  of  the  research  work  which  the 
war  stimulated  was  the  development  of  voice  command  in  formation 
flying  by  means  of  wireless  devices.  The  great  significance  of  this  in- 
vention will  be  appreciated  when  it  is  realized  that  the  leader  of  a 
formation  has  heretofore  been  dependent  on  signals  for  conveying 
instructions  to  the  individual  units  of  the  squadron. 

TRAINING   OF  PERSONNEL 

After  the  declaration  of  war  the  construction  of  training  fields  pro- 
ceeded with  such  rapidity  that  the  demand  for  training  equipment 
greatly  exceeded  the  output.  Since  the  latter  part  of  1917,  however, 
the  supply  of  elementary  training  planes  and  engines  has  been  more 
than  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands,  while  the  situation  as  regards  cer- 
tain types  of  planes  for  advanced  training  has  greatly  improved.  Ap- 
proximately 17,000  cadets  were  graduated  from  ground  schools;  8,602 
reserve  military  aviators  were  graduated  from  elementary  training 
schools;  and  4,028  aviators  completed  the  course  in  advanced  train- 
ing provided  in  this  country.  Pending  the  provision  of  adequate 
equipment  for  specialized  advanced  training,  the  policy  was  adopted 
of  sending  students  overseas  for  a  short  finishing  course  before  going 
into  action.  The  shortage  of  skilled  mechanics  with  sufficient  knowl- 
edge of  aeroplanes  and  motors  was  met  by  the  establishment  of  train- 
ing schools  from  which  over  14,000  mechanics  were  graduated. 

At  the  cessation  of  hostilities  there  were  in  training  as  aviators  in 
the  United  States  6,528  men,  of  whom  22  per  cent  were  in  ground 
schools,  37  per  cent  in  elementary  schools,  and  41  per  cent  in  advanced 
training  schools.  The  number  of  men  in  training  as  aviator  mechanics 
was  2,154. 


332  APPENDIX    I 

FORCES  AT  THE   FRONT 

Early  in  1918  the  first  squadrons  composed  of  American  personnel 
provided  with  French  planes  appeared  at  the  front.  The  number  was 
increased  as  rapidly  as  equipment  could  be  obtained.  On  September 
30,  the  date  of  the  latest  available  information,  there  were  32  squadrons 
at  the  front;  of  these  15  were  pursuit,  13  observation,  and  4  bombing. 
The  first  squadron  equipped  with  American  planes  reached  the  front 
in  the  latter  part  of  July. 

LOSSES  IN  BATTLE  AND   IN  TRAINING 

Though  the  casualties  in  the  air  force  were  small  as  compared  with 
the  total  strength,  the  casualty  rate  of  the  flying  personnel  at  the  front 
was  somewhat  above  the  artillery  and  infantry  rates.  The  reported 
battle  fatalities  up  to  October  24  were  128  and  accident  fatalities  over- 
seas 244.  The  results  of  Allied  and  American  experience  at  the  front 
indicate  that  two  aviators  lose  their  lives  in  accidents  for  each  aviator 
killed  in  battle.  The  fatalities  at  training  fields  in  the  United  States 
to  October  24th  were  262. 

[A  later  official  report  gave  the  total  U.  S.  aviators  lost  in  combat 
as  171,  and  those  killed  by  accident  as  554.] 

COMMISSIONED   AND   ENLISTED   STRENGTH 

On  America's  entrance  into  the  war,  the  personnel  of  the  Air  Service 
consisted  of  65  officers  and  1,120  men.  When  the  armistice  was  signed 
the  total  strength  was  slightly  over  190,000,  comprising  about  20,000 
commissioned  officers,  over  6,000  cadets  under  training,  and  164,000 
enlisted  men.  In  addition  to  the  cadets  under  training,  the  flying  per- 
sonnel was  composed  of  about  11,000  officers,  of  whom  approximately 
42  per  cent  were  with  the  Expeditionary  Force  when  hostilities  ceased. 
The  Air  Service  constituted  slightly  over  5  per  cent  of  the  total  strength 
of  the  Army. 

GENERAL  PERSHING'S  REPORT 

Secretary  Baker's  report  included  a  communication  received 
from  General  Pershing  in  which  he  commented  on  aircraft  and 
the  Air  Service  as  follows: 

"Our  entry  into  the  war  found  us  with  few  of  the  auxiliaries  neces- 
sary for  its  conduct  in  the  modern  sense.  Among  our  most  important 
deficiencies  in  material  were  artillery,  aviation,  and  tanks.  In  order 
to  meet  our  requirements  as  rapidly  as  possible,  we  accepted  the  offer 
of  the  French  Government  to  provide  us  with  the  necessary  artillery 
equipment. 


APPENDIX    I  333 

"In  aviation  we  were  in  the  same  situation,  and  here  again  the 
French  Government  came  to  our  aid  until  our  own  aviation  program 
should  be  under  way.  We  obtained  from  the  French  the  necessary 
planes  for  training  our  personnel,  and  they  have  provided  us  with  a 
total  of  2,676  pursuit,  observation,  and  bombing  planes.  The  first 
aeroplanes  received  from  home  arrived  in  May,  and  altogether  we 
have  received  1,379.  The  first  American  squadron  completely  equipped 
by  American  production,  including  aeroplanes,  crossed  the  German 
lines  on  August  7,  1918. 

"  It  should  be  fully  realized  that  the  French  Government  has  always 
taken  a  most  liberal  attitude  and  has  been  most  anxious  to  give  us 
every  possible  assistance  in  meeting  our  deficiencies  in  these  as  well 
as  in  other  respects.  Our  dependence  upon  France  for  artillery,  avia- 
tion, and  tanks  was,  of  course,  due  to  the  fact  that  our  industries  had 
not  been  exclusively  devoted  to  military  production.  All  credit  is 
due  our  own  manufacturers  for  their  efforts  to  meet  our  requirements, 
as  at  the,  time  the  armistice  was  signed  we  were  able  to  look  forward 
to  the  early  supply  of  practically  all  our  necessities  from  our  own 
factories." 

THE  HUGHES  REPORT 

The  committee  appointed  by  the  President  to  investigate 
the  charges  of  misappropriation  of  funds  reported  in  November, 
1918,  on  the  number  of  training  planes  and  engines  built. 
Justice  Chas.  E.  Hughes  was  chairman  of  the  committee: 

AEROPLANES  AND  ENGINES  DELIVERED  DURING  FISCAL  YEAR 
ENDING  JUNE  30,  1918 

The  reported  deliveries  of  Aeroplanes  and  Engines  made  prior  to 
June  30,  1918,  are  as  follows: 

AEROPLANES 

Elementary  Training  Planes 

JN4-D 2972 

SJ-1. .  1600 

4572 

Advanced  Training  Planes 

JN-4H 

Training 402 

Gunnery 321 

JN6-HB 100 

S4-B 100 

S4-C , 

Penguin 50 

1046 


334  APPENDIX    I 

Combat  and  Bombing  Planes 

DeH-4 529 

Bristol  Fighter 24 

553 

Total  planes 6171 

ENGINES 

Elementary  Training 

OX-5 5474 

A7a 2188 

7662 

Advanced  Training 

Hispano    150  H.  P 2188 

Gnome      100     " 209 

Le  Rhone   80     "    68 

Lawrence    28     "    114 

2579 

Combat  and  Bombing 

U.  S.  12  Cylinder  (Army  Type) 1615 

U.S.  "         "        (NavyType) 775 

Hispano  300  H.  P 2 

,2392 

Total  engines 12633 

NUMBER  OF  MACHINES  AT  THE  FRONT 

Report  prepared  by  Statistics  Branch,  General  Staff,  War 
Department,  March  22, 1919,  concerning  the  628  De  Haviland  4 
planes  put  in  service  at  front  before  armistice. 

The  following  table  and  diagram  shows  the  status  of  produc- 
tion, shipments  and  use  overseas  of  De  Haviland  4  service  planes 
at  the  date  of  the  armistice: 

Per  cent 
of  total 
Number          production 

Produced ,  . . . .  3,227  100 

Floated 1,885  58 

Received  at  French  ports  (a) 1,185  37 

Assembled  overseas 1,025  32 

Put  into  service  overseas 983  30 

Put  into  service  at  front 628  19 

In  commission  at  front  (6) 457  14 

(a)  To  November  1,  1918. 

(6)  November  3,  1918. 


APPENDIX    I  335 

Value  of  contracts  cancelled  and  suspended  exceed  $480,000,- 
000. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  value  of  cancellations  and 
suspensions  of  contracts  to  March  19,  1919: 

Per  cent 
Value  of  total 

Engines  and  spare  parts $250,409,982  52 

Airplanes  and  spare  parts 167,554,386  35 

Chemicals  and  chemical  plants 19,852,370  4 

Instruments  and  accessories 13,832,902  3 

Balloons  and  supplies 10,071,035  2 

Fabrics,  lumber  and  metals 7,968,324  2 

Miscellaneous 11,041,132  2 

Total $480,730,131 

THE  SIXTY-FOUR  AMERICAN  ACES 

The  following  official  list  gives  the  status  of  the  sixty-four 
American  aces — that  is,  aviators  who  had  each  downed  five  or 
more  enemies  by  the  time  hostilities  ceased: 

Captain  Edward  V.  Rickenbacker  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  famous 
as  an  automobile  driver,  was  the  premier  "Ace"  of  the  Ameri- 
can air  force  in  France,  having  twenty-six  enemy  planes  to  his 
credit. 

First  Lieutenant  Frank  Luke,  Jr.,  of  Phoenix,  Ariz.,  who  was 
killed  in  action  May  19,  1918,  was  second  on  the  list  of  "  Aces," 
with  eighteen  victories  to  his  credit,  and  Major  Victor  Raoul 
Lufbery  of  Wallingford,  Conn.,  also  killed  in  action  May  19, 
1918,  was  third,  with  seventeen  victories.  Before  joining  the 
American  Army,  Major  Lufbery  was  a  member  of  the  Lafayette 
Escadrille. 

Captain  Reed  G.  Landis  of  Chicago,  son  of  Judge  Landis, 
and  First  Lieutenant  David  E.  Putnam,  of  Brookline,  Mass., 
who  was  killed  in  action,  had  twelve  victories  each.  The  other 
"Aces,"  with  the  number  of  victories  credited  to  each,  follow: 

First  Lieutenant  Fields  Kinley,  Gravette,  Ark.,  10. 
First  Lieutenant  G.  A.  Vaughn,  Jr.,  341  Washington  Avenue,  Brooklyn, 
10. 


336  APPENDIX    I 

First  Lieutenant  J.  M.  Swaab,  Philadelphia,  10. 

First  Lieutenant  T.  G.  Cassady,  9. 

First  Lieutenant  C.  E.  Wright,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  9. 

First  Lieutenant  W.  P.  Erwin,  Chicago,  9. 

Captain  E.  W.  Springs,  Lancaster,  Penn.,  9. 

First  Lieutenant  H.  R.  Clay,  Jr.,  Fort  Worth,  Texas,  8. 

Major  J.  A.  Meissner,  45  Lenox  Road,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  8. 

Captain  Hamilton  Coolidge  (deceased),  Boston,  Mass.,  8. 

Captain  G.  De  F.  Larner,  Washington,  D.  C.,  8. 

First  Lieutenant  P.  F.  Baer,  Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  8  (captured  May  22, 
1918). 

First  Lieutenant  F.  O.  D.  Hunter,  Savannah,  Ga.,  8. 

First  Lieutenant  W.  W.  White,  541  Lexington  Avenue,  New  York 
City,  8. 

Second  Lieutenant  Clinton  Jones,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  8. 

Captain  R.  M.  Chambers,  Memphis,  Tenn.,  7. 

First  Lieutenant  Harvey  Cook,  Toledo,  Ohio,  7. 

First  Lieutenant  L.  C.  Holden,  103  Park  Avenue,  New  York  City,  7. 

First  Lieutenant  K.  H.  Schoen  (deceased),  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  7. 

First  Lieutenant  W.  A.  Robertson,  Fort  Smith,  Ark.,  7. 

First  Lieutenant  L.  J.  Rummell,  798  South  llth  Street,  Newark,  N.  J.,  7. 

First  Lieutenant  L.  A.  Hamilton  (deceased),  Burlington,  Vt.,  or  Pitts- 
field,  Mass.,  7. 

First  Lieutenant  J.  0.  Creech,  Washington,  D.  C.,  6. 

Second  Lieutenant  Howard  Burdick,  175  Remsen  Street,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  6. 

First  Lieutenant  C.  L.  Bissell,  Kane,  Penn.,  6. 

Major  H.  E.  Hartney,  Saskatoon,  Canada,  6. 

Captain  Douglass  Campbell,  Mount  Hamilton,  Cal.,  6.    T^. 

Captain  J.  C.  Vasconcelles,  Denver,  Col.,  6. 

Captain  E.  G.  Tobin,  San  Antonio,  Texas,  6. 

First  Lieutenant  E.  P.  Curtis,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  6. 

First  Lieutenant  Sumner  Sewell,  no  address,  6. 

First  Lieutenant  R.  A.  O'Neill,  Nogales,  Ariz.,  6. 

First  Lieutenant  Donald  Hudson,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  6. 

First  Lieutenant  M.  K.  Guthrie,  Mobile,  Ala.,  6. 

First  Lieutenant  W.  H.  Stovall,  Stovall,  Miss.,  6. 

First  Lieutenant  J.  D.  Beane  (missing  in  action),  6. 

First  Lieutenant  A.  R.  Brooks,  Framingham,  Mass.,  6. 

First  Lieutenant  R.  O.  Lindsay,  Madison,  N.  C.,  6. 

First  Lieutenant  Martinus  Stenseth,  Twin  City,  Minn.,  6. 

Second  Lieutenant  F.  K.  Hays,  Chicago,  111.,  6. 

First  Lieutenant  H.  C.  Klotts,  no  address,  5. 

Lieutenant-Colonel  William  Thaw,  Pittsburgh,  Penn.,  5. 

Major  D.  McK.  Peterson,  Honesdale,  Penn.,  5. 

Captain  H.  R.  Buckley,  Agawam,  Mass.,  5. 


APPENDIX    I  337 

Major  C.  J.  Biddle,  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  5. 

First  Lieutenant  James  Knowles,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  5. 

First  Lieutenant  J.  A.  Healey,  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  5. 

First  Lieutenant  Innis  Potter,  no  address,  5. 

First  Lieutenant  F.  M.  Symonds,  20  West  8th  Street,  New  York  City, 

5. 
First  Lieutenant  J.  F.  Wehner  (deceased),  124  East  28th  Street,  New 

York,  5. 

First  Lieutenant  J.  J.  Sereley,  Chicago,  5. 
First  Lieutenant  E.  M.  Haight,  Astoria,  N.  Y.,  5. 
First  Lieutenant  H.  H.  George,  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  5. 
First  Lieutenant  G.  W.  Furlow,  Rochester,  Minn.,  5. 
First  Lieutenant  A.  E.  Esterbrook,  Fort  Flagler,  Wash.,  5. 
First  Lieutenant  B.  V.  Baucom,  Milford,  Texas,  5. 
Second  Lieutenant  Harold  McArthur,  no  address,  5. 
Second  Lieutenant  J.  S.  Owens,  Baltimore,  5. 
Second  Lieutenant  J.  O.  Donaldson,  Washington,  D.  C.,  5. 


OTHER  AMERICANS  WHO  ARE  CREDITED  WITH 
BRINGING  DOWN  ONE  OR  MORE 
PLANES 

Lieutenant  Frank  L.  Baylies,  New  Bedford,  Mass,  (killed  June  20, 

1918,  in  the  British  Air  Service),  12. 
Adjutant  E.  C.  Parsons,  Springfield,  Mass.,  4. 
Lieutenant  H.  Clay  Ferguson,  wounded  March  12,  1918,  4. 
Captain  J.  Norman  Hall,  Lafayette  Escadrille  and  A.  E.  F.,  Colfax, 

la.,  wounded  and  captured,  May  7,  1819,  4. 

Lieutenant  Joseph  C.  Stehlin,  Lafayette  Escadrille,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  3. 
Lieutenant  Norman  Prince  (organizer  of  Lafayette  Escadrille),  Beverly 

Farms,  Mass.,  killed  October  15,  1916,  0. 
Lieutenant  Kiffin  Yates  Rockwell,  Lafayette  Escadrille,  Asheville,  N.  C., 

killed  September  23,  1916,  4. 

Lieutenant  Walter  Rheno,  Martha's  Vineyard,  Mass.,  3. 
Lieutenant  Walter  Lovell,  Lafayette  Escadrille,  Concord,  Mass.,  3. 
Lieutenant  Thomas  Hitchcock,  Jr.,  Lafayette  Escadrille,  Roslyn,  N. 

Y.,  captured  March  10,  1918.    He  escaped  later.    3. 
Lieutenant  Bert  Hall,  Lafayette  Escadrille,  Bowling  Green,  Ky.,  re- 
tired December,  1916,  3. 

George  Turnure,  Lenox,  Mass.,  third  on  July  17,  1918,  3. 
Lieutenant  Hugh  Dugan,  Chicago,  Royal  Flying  Corps,  captured  April 

6,  1918,  2. 

Lieutenant  G.  de  Freest  Larner,  Washington,  D.  C.,  2. 
Lieutenant  Andrew  C.  Campbell,  Chicago,  missing,  2. 


338  APPENDIX    I 

Captain  Phelps  Collins,  Detroit,  killed  March  18,  1918,  2. 

Lieutenant  Didier  Masson,  New  York,  Lafayette  Escadrille,  2. 

Christopher  Ford,  New  York,  2. 

Lieutenant  W.  A.  Wellman,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  2. 

Sergeant  James  E.  Connelly,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  2. 

Sergeant  Victor  Chapman,  Lafayette  Escadrille,  killed  June  23, 1916,  2. 

Sergeant  Vernon  Booth,  Chicago,  2. 

Sergeant  Austin  B.  Crehore,  Westfield,  New  York,  1. 

Lieutenant  Willis  Haviland,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  1. 

Lieutenant  Harry  Sweet  Jones,  Hartford,  Pa.,  1. 

Lieutenant  Charles  C.  Johnson,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1. 

Captain  Robert  L.  Rockwell,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1. 

Lieutenant  Stuart  Walcott,  Washington,  killed  December  14,  1917,  1. 

Lieutenant  Alan  F.  Winslow,  Rive  Forest,  111.,  1. 

Lieutenant  Edgar  Tobin,  San  Antonio,  on  July  11,  1918,  1. 

Lieutenant  Charles  T.  Merrick,  Eldora,  Iowa,  1. 

Lieutenant  Alexander  O.  Craig,  New  York,  in  Italy,  on  July  5,  1918,  1. 

Lieutenant  Sumner  Sewell,  Bath,  Me.,  above  Toul,  on  June  3,  1918,  1. 

Lieutenant  William  J.  Hoover,  Hartsville,  S.  C.,  on  July  2,  1918,  1. 

Lieutenant  Alfred  A.  Grant,  Denton,  Texas,  on  July  2,  1918,  1. 

Lieutenant  John  McArthur,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  on  July  2,  1918,  1. 

Lieutenant  Tyler  Cook  Bronson,  New  York,  on  July  1,  1918,  1. 

Lieutenant  Charles  W.  Chapman  on  May  8,  1918.  Both  he  and  vic- 
tim fell  in  flames,  1. 

Captain  Kenneth  Marr,  on  May  15,  1918, 1. 

Lieutenant  Henry  Grendelass,  1. 

Lieutenant  Edward  Buford,  Jr.,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  on  May  22,  1918,  1. 

Lieutenant  William  H.  Taylor,  New  York,  on  May  21,  1918,  1. 

Ensign  Stephen  Potter,  Boston,  Mass.,  killed  April  25,  1918,  1. 

Lieutenant  Walter  Avery,  Columbus,  Ohio,  brought  down  and  captured 
Captain  Menekhoff,  the  German  ace,  who  had  34  victories  on 
July  25,  1918,  1. 


CITATIONS  AND  DECORATIONS  OF  MEMBERS 
OF  THE  U.  S.  ARMY  AIR  SERVICE 

DISTINGUISHED  SERVICE  CROSS 

Gardner  Philip  Allen,  First  Lieutenant,  C.  A.  C. 
Flynn  L.  A.  Andrew,  First  Lieutenant. 
David  H.  Backus,  First  Lieutenant. 
Herbert  B.  Bartholf,  First  Lieutenant. 
Erwin  R.  Bleckley,  Second  Lieutenant. 
Samuel  C.  Bowman,  Second  Lieutenant. 


APPENDIX    I  339 


Hugh  D.  G.  Broomfield,  First  Lieutenant. 

John  R.  Castleman,  First  Lieutenant. 

Weir  H.  Cook,  First  Lieutenant. 

Hamilton  Coolidge  (deceased),  Captain. 

Justin  P.  Follette,  First  Lieutenant. 

William  F.  Frank,  First  Lieutenant. 

Harold  E.  Goettler  (deceased),  Second  Lieutenant. 

Andre  Gundelach  (deceased),  First  Lieutenant. 

D.  C.  Hunter,  First  Lieutenant. 

John  N.  Jeffers,  First  Lieutenant. 

Samuel  Kaye,  Jr.,  First  Lieutenant. 

Willburt  E.  Kinsley,  Second  Lieutenant. 

James  Knowles,  First  Lieutenant. 

G.  DeFreest  Lamer,  First  Lieutenant. 

William  O.  Lowe,  Second  Lieutenant,  U.  S.  M.  C. 

Edward  Russell  Moore,  First  Lieutenant. 

Edward  M.  Morris,  Second  Lieutenant. 

Stephen  H.  Noyes,  Captain. 

Alfred  B.  Patterson,  Jr.,  First  Lieutenant. 

Britton  Policy,  First  Lieutenant. 

Charles  P.  Porter,  Second  Lieutenant. 

Clearton  H.  Reynolds,  Captain. 

Leslie  J.  Rummell,  First  Lieutenant. 

Karl  J.  Schoen  (deceased),  First  Lieutenant. 

Richard  B.  Shelby,  First  Lieutenant. 

John  Y.  Stokes,  Jr.,  First  Lieutenant. 

William  H.  Stovall,  First  Lieutenant. 

William  H.  Vail,  First  Lieutenant. 

Pennington  H.  Way  (deceased),  Second  Lieutenant. 

Joseph  F.  Wehner,  First  Lieutenant, 

Chester  E.  Wright,  First  Lieutenant. 

LEGION  OF  HONOR— FRENCH 

(COMMANDER) 

Charles  T.  Menoher,  Major-General. 
William  Mitchell,  Brigadier-General. 

CROIX  DE  GUERRE— FRENCH 

Thomas  J.  Abernathy,  Second  Lieutenant. 
James  A.  Healy,  First  Lieutenant. 
Arthur  H.  Jones,  First  Lieutenant. 
Charles  T.  Menoher,  Major-General. 
Ralph  A.  O'Neill,  First  Lieutenant. 


340  APPENDIX    I 

Charles  P.  Porter,  Second  Lieutenant. 
Kenneth  L.  Porter,  Second  Lieutenant. 
Joseph  C.  Raible,  Jr.,  First  Lieutenant. 
Louis  C.  Simon,  Jr.,  First  Lieutenant. 

ITALIAN  CITATIONS 

James  P.  Hanley,  Jr.,  First  Lieutenant. 
George  C.  Hering,  First  Lieutenant. 
William  P.  Shelton,  First  Lieutenant. 
Norman  Sweetser,  First  Lieutenant. 
Emory  E.  Watchorn,  First  Lieutenant. 
Frederick  K.  Weyerhaeuser,  First  Lieutenant. 

FRENCH  CITATIONS 

Valentine  J.  Burger,  Second  Lieutenant. 
Alexander  T.  Grier,  Second  Lieutenant. 
Horace  A.  Lake,  Second  Lieutenant. 

CROCE  AL  MERITO  DI  GUERRA— ITALIAN 

James  L.  Bahl,  First  Lieutenant. 
Raymond  P.  Baldwin,  First  Lieutenant. 
Arthur  M.  Beach,  First  Lieutenant. 
Allen  W.  Bevin,  First  Lieutenant. 
Gilbert  P.  Bogart,  First  Lieutenant. 
Arthur  F.  Clement,  First  Lieutenant. 
William  G.  Cochran,  First  Lieutenant. 
De  Witt  Coleman,  Jr.,  First  Lieutenant. 
Kenneth  G.  Collins,  First  Lieutenant. 
Alexander  M.  Craig,  First  Lieutenant. 
Herbert  C.  Dobbs,  Jr.,  First  Lieutenant. 
Edmund  A.  Donnan,  First  Lieutenant. 
Norton  Downs,  Jr.,  First  Lieutenant. 
Arthur  D.  Farquhar,  First  Lieutenant. 
Harry  S.  Kinkenstaedt,  First  Lieutenant. 
Willis  S.  Fitch,  First  Lieutenant. 
Donald  G.  Frost,  First  Lieutenant. 
William  O.  Frost,  First  Lieutenant. 
James  P.  Hanley,  Jr.,  First  Lieutenant. 
Spencer  L.  Hart,  Second  Lieutenant. 
George  C.  Hering,  First  Lieutenant. 
Wallace  Hoggson,  First  Lieutenant. 
Gosta  A.  Johnson,  First  Lieutenant. 
James  Kennedy,  Second  Lieutenant. 


APPENDIX    I  341 


LeRoy  D.  Kiley,  First  Lieutenant. 
Herman  F.  Kreuger,  First  Lieutenant. 
Fiorello  H.  LaGuardia,  Major. 
Paton  MacGilvary,  First  Lieutenant. 
Oble  Mitchell,  First  Lieutenant. 
William  H.  Potthoff,  First  Lieutenant. 
Aubrey  G.  Russel,  First  Lieutenant. 
William  B.  Shelton,  First  Lieutenant. 
Norman  Sweetser,  First  Lieutenant. 
Norman  Terry,  Second  Lieutenant. 
Emory  E.  Watchorn,  First  Lieutenant. 
Frederick  K.  Weyerhaeuser,  First  Lieutenant. 
Warren  Wheeler,  First  Lieutenant. 
Alfred  S.  R.  Wilson,  First  Lieutenant. 
Warren  S.  Wilson,  First  Lieutenant. 


REPORT  OF  THE  DIRECTOR  OF  MILITARY 
AERONAUTICS 

WAK  DEPARTMENT, 
OFFICE  OF  THE  DIRECTOR  OF  MILITARY  AERONAUTICS, 

November  3,  1918. 

SIR:  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  the  annual  report  of  the 
Division  of  Military  Aeronautics  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 
1918.  Though  the  Division  of  Military  Aeronautics  was  created  only 
on  April  24,  1917,  it  was  agreed  that  the  duties  intrusted  to  it  and 
previously  carried  out  by  the  Signal  Corps  should  be  covered  in  this 
report  in  order  to  present  a  continuous  story  of  the  development  of 
the  personnel,  training,  and  organizing  phases  of  the  present  Air  Ser- 
vice. Also  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  operations  on  the  front  in 
France  have  been  left  largely  to  whatever  report  the  American  Ex- 
peditionary Force  may  deem  wise. 

The  fiscal  year  1917-18  saw  aviation  develop  from  a  wholly  sub- 
sidiary branch  of  the  Army  as  the  Aviation  Section  of  the  Signal  Corps 
to  a  position  of  extreme  and  decisive  importance  as  the  Air  Service, 
directly  under  the  Chief  of  Staff.  From  the  most  insignificant  begin- 
nings it  came  within  the  year  to  be  one  of  America's  major  efforts  in 
the  war. 

This  is  all  the  more  surprising  when  America's  previous  backward- 
ness in  aviation  is  considered.  This  country  has  stood  practically  still 
in  aerial  progress,  while  the  war  in  Europe  brought  about  an  extraor- 
dinary advance.  From  all  this  the  United  States  was  entirely  shut 
off  up  to  the  time  it  abandoned  neutrality.  So  little  exact  knowledge 


342  APPENDIX    I 

was  available  that  the  first  American  planes  to  go  with  the  expedition 
into  Mexico  in  March,  1916,  were  all  rendered  useless  in  accidents 
within  a  short  time  of  arrival.  There  was  practically  no  aviation 
technique  here  comparable  to  Europe's,  almost  negligible  manufacturing 
facilities,  not  a  hundred  trained  flyers,  and  only  the  most  rudimentary 
facilities  for  training.  Moreover,  no  one  had  any  adequate  apprecia- 
tion of  the  intricacy  and  skill  required  in  the  making  of  either  an  aero- 
plane or  the  training  of  a  pilot. 

As  against  this  stagnation  Europe's  progress  in  two  and  one-half 
years  of  war  had  been  tremendous.  The  first  planes  to  go  to  the  front 
in  1914  had  been  few  in  number,  unequipped  with  radio,  machine 
guns,  bombs,  or  photographic  apparatus,  and  entirely  unproved  in 
military  value.  Their  extraordinary  success,  however,  in  disclosing 
the  size  of  the  German  concentration  in  Belgium  at  once  brought  them 
into  a  position  of  great  importance.  Very  shortly  radio  was  installed 
to  replace  signaling  by  dropping  tinsel  or  making  curious  evolutions; 
the  pistols  of  the  pilots  gave  way  to  machine  guns;  the  easy-going 
system  of  dropping  bombs  over  the  side  was  replaced  by  regular  bomb- 
ing planes,  and  the  occasional  taking  of  photographs  by  an  intricate 
system  of  picturing  every  mile  of  the  front.  Engine  power  increased 
to  200, 300, 400, 500  horse  power;  huge  planes  with  large  carrying  capac- 
ity were  being  developed  for  night-bombing;  and  operations  were  tak- 
ing place  by  whole  squadrons  in  various  air  strata — light,  single-seater 
scouts  around  15,000  to  20,000  feet,  two-seater  day  bombers  around 
9,000  feet,  and  photographic  and  observation  planes  around  6,000  feet. 

In  contrast  to  all  this  development  the  United  States  at  the  time  of 
its  entry  into  the  war  stood  very  little  ahead  of  where  it  had  been 
before  the  world  war  broke  out.  Aviation,  both  in  its  personnel  and 
its  equipment,  was  included  in  that  part  of  the  Signal  Corps  known 
as  the  Aviation  Section,  which  had  been  established  by  Congress  July 
18,  1914.  Its  chief  was  Maj.  Gen.  George  O.  Squier,  who  after  four 
years  as  military  attache"  in  London,  had  been  put  in  charge  of  the 
Aviation  Section  in  May,  1916,  and  made  Chief  Signal  Officer  on 
February  14,  1917,  continuing  to  have  charge  of  aviation  through 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  fiscal  year.  On  April  6,  1917,  the  total  assets 
on  hand  consisted  of  65  officers,  1,120  men,  two  small  flying  fields,  less 
than  300  very  second-rate  training  planes,  practically  no  manufacturing 
facilities,  and  only  the  most  meagre  technical  information  as  to  Europe's 
startling  developments. 

The  original  American  war  program,  based  on  an  army  of  a  million 
men,  made  aviation  but  a  relatively  insignificant  part  of  the  general 
military  forces.  This  program,  which  represented  the  view  of  the 
General  Staff  before  the  arrival  of  the  foreign  missions,  was  met  by 
two  appropriations,  $10,800,000  on  May  12,  1917,  and  $43,450,000  on 
June  15,  many  times  larger  than  any  appropriations  ever  before  made. 

The  British  and  French  missions,  however,  arriving  the  last  part 


APPENDIX    I  343 

of  April,  completely  revolutionized  this  viewpoint.  Supported  by  an 
urgent  cable  of  May  24  from  the  premier  of  France,  calling  for  2,000 
planes  a  month  and  a  total  of  5,000  pilots  and  50,000  mechanicians,  the 
$640,000,000  appropriation,  the  largest  ever  made  by  Congress  for  one 
specific  purpose,  was  drawn  up,  put  through  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives Military  Affairs  Committee  in  two  meetings,  the  House  itself  in 
one,  the  Senate  Military  Affairs  Committee  in  45  minutes,  and  the 
Senate  itself  a  week  later,  becoming  law  on  July  24,  1917.  On  this 
date  the  present  large  program  was  really  launched,  two  months  and 
a  half  after  the  outbreak  of  war,  and  largely  in  response  to  allied 
appeals. 

The  rest  of  the  fiscal  year  was  taken  up  in  amplifying  and  executing 
the  lines  of  effort  here  laid  down.  Toward  the  end  of  the  year,  how- 
ever, it  became  obvious  that  the  system  of  organization  of  an  Aviation 
Section  as  a  subsidiary  branch  of  the  Signal  Corps  was  not  functioning 
efficiently.  The  British  and  French,  perceiving  that  we  were  encounter- 
ing the  same  kind  of  obstacles  as  theirs,  strongly  recommended  a 
separate,  independent  air  service  similar  to  the  air  ministries  they  had 
been  obliged  to  establish  and  which  have  worked  so  successfully  since. 
As  a  result,  a  first  step  was  taken  in  a  rearrangement  of  duties  designed 
to  effect  a  greater  independence  and  a  greater  concentration  of  au- 
thority when,  on  April  24,  the  War  Department  authorized  the  follow- 
ing statement: 

"Mr.  John  D.  Ryan  has  accepted  the  directorship  of  aircraft  pro- 
duction for  the  Army. 

"A  reorganization  of  the  Aviation  Section  of  the  Signal  Corps  has 
been  also  effected,  of  which  the  principal  elements  are  as  follows: 

"Gen.  Squier,  as  Chief  Signal  Officer,  will  devote  his  attention  to 
the  administration  of  signals;  a  Division  of  Military  Aeronautics  la 
created,  under  the  direction  of  Brig.  Gen.  William  L.  Kenly.  The 
Aircraft  Board,  created  by  act  of  Congress,  remains  as  an  advisory 
body,  as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  with  Mr.  Ryan  as  its  chairman.  This 
arrangement  is  made  with  the  entire  concurrence  of  Mr.  Howard  Coffin, 
who  remains  a  member  of  the  Advisory  Commission  of  the  Council  of 
National  Defense  and  will  render  assistance  and  counsel  to  the  Air- 
craft Board  and  Mr.  Ryan. 

"The  Division  of  Military  Aeronautics  will  have  control  of  the 
training  of  aviators  and  military  use  of  aircraft.  The  exact  division 
of  functions  in  the  matter  of  designing  and  engineering  will  be  worked 
out  as  experience  determines  between  the  Division  of  Military  Aero- 
nautics and  the  Division  of  Production. 

"This  announcement  involves  no  change  of  personnel  in  the  present 
Equipment  Division  of  the  Signal  Corps,  of  which  W.  C.  Potter  is 
chief,  and  which  will  continue  under  his  direction." 

This  reorganization,  however,  was  admittedly  but  the  first  step. 
The  first  action  taken  by  the  President  under  the  broad  powers  of  the 


344  APPENDIXI 

Overman  Act  was  to  effect  a  still  further  reorganization  by  taking 
aviation  entirely  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Signal  Corps,  where  it 
has  been  from  its  inception  on  July  18,  1914,  and  to  set  up  two  sepa- 
rate bureaus,  one  for  securing  and  training  the  large  flying  and  ground 
forces,  and  the  other  for  providing  planes,  engines,  and  equipment. 
The  presidential  order  of  May  21  covering  this  change  follows: 
"By  virtue  of  the  authority  in  me  vested  as  Commander-in-Chief 
of  the  Army  and  by  virtue  of  further  authority  upon  me  specifically 
conferred  by  'An  act  authorizing  the  President  to  coordinate  or  con- 
solidate executive  bureaus,  agencies,  and  offices,  and  for  other  purposes, 
in  the  interest  of  economy  and  the  more  efficient  concentration  of  the 
Government/  approved  May  20,  1918,  I  do  hereby  make  and  publish 
the  following  order: 

"The  powers  heretofore  conferred  by  law  or  by  Executive  order 
upon  and  the  duties  and  functions  heretofore  performed  by  the  Chief 
Signal  Officer  of  the  Army  are  hereby  redistributed  as  follows: 


"  (1)  The  Chief  Signal  Officer  of  the  Army  shall  have  charge,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  of  all  military  signal  duties, 
and  of  books,  papers  and  devices  connected  therewith,  including  tele- 
graph and  telephone  apparatus  and  the  necessary  meteorological  instru- 
ments for  use  on  target  ranges,  and  other  military  uses;  the  construc- 
tion, repair,  and  operation  of  military  telegraph  lines,  and  the  duty  of 
collecting  and  transmitting  information  for  the  Army  by  telegraph 
or  otherwise,  and  all  other  duties  usually  pertaining  to  military  signal- 
ing; and  shall  perform  such  other  duties  as  now  or  are  or  shall  here- 
after be  devolved  by  law  or  by  Executive  order  upon  said  Chief  Signal 
Officer  which  are  not  connected  with  the  Aviation  Section  of  the  Signal 
Corps  or  with  the  purchase,  manufacture,  maintenance,  and  produc- 
tion of  aircraft,  and  which  are  not  hereinafter  conferred,  in  special  or 
general  terms,  upon  other-  officers  or  agencies. 

"  (2)  A  Director  of  Military  Aeronautics,  selected  and  designated  by 
the  Commander  in  Chief  of  the  Army,  shall  hereafter  have  charge, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  of  the  Aviation  Section 
of  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  Army,  and  as  such  shall  be,  and  he  hereby 
is,  charged  with  the  duty  of  operating  and  maintaining  or  supervising 
the  operation  and  maintenance  of  all  military  aircraft,  including  bal- 
loons and  aeroplanes,  all  appliances  pertaining  to  said  aircraft  and 
signaling  apparatus  of  any  kind  when  installed  on  said  aircraft,  and  of 
training  officers,  enlisted  men,  and  candidates  for  aviation  service  in 
matters  pertaining  to  military  aviation,  and  shall  hereafter  perform 
each  and  every  function  heretofore  imposed  upon  and  performed  by 
the  Chief  Signal  Officer  of  the  Army  in,  or  in  connection  with,  the 
Aviation  Section  of  the  Signal  Corps,  except  such  as  pertains  to  the 


APPENDIX    I  345 

purchase,  manufacture,  and  production  of  aircraft  and  aircraft  equip- 
ment and  as  is  not  hereinafter  conferred,  in  special  or  general  terms, 
upon  the  Bureau  of  Aircraft  Production;  and  all  aeroplanes  now  in 
use  or  completed  and  on  hand  and  all  material  and  parts,  and  all 
machinery,  tools,  appliances,  and  equipment  held  for  use  for  the  main- 
tenance thereof;  all  lands,  buildings,  repair  shops,  warehouses,  and  all 
other  property,  real,  personal,  or  mixed,  heretofore  used  by  the  Signal 
Corps  in,  or  in  connection  with,  the  operation  and  maintenance  of  air- 
craft and  the  training  of  officers,  enlisted  men,  and  candidates  for 
aviation  service,  or  procured  and  now  held  for  such  use  by  or  under 
the  jurisdiction  and  control  of  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  Army;  all  books, 
records,  files  and  office  equipment  heretofore  used  by  the  Signal  Corps, 
in,  or  in  connection  with,  such  operation,  maintenance,  and  training; 
and  the  entire  personnel  of  the  Signal  Corps  as  at  present  assigned  to, 
or  engaged  upon  work  in,  or  in  connection  with,  such  operation,  main- 
tenance, and  training,  is  hereby  transferred  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Chief  Signal  Office  and  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Director  of 
Military  Aeronautics;  it  being  the  intent  hereof  to  transfer  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Chief  Signal  Officer  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  said 
Director  of  Military  Aeronautics  every  function,  power,  and  duty  con- 
ferred and  imposed  upon  said  Director  of  Military  Aeronautics  by  sub- 
paragraph  (2)  of  paragraph  I  hereof  all  property  of  every  sort  of  nature 
used  or  procured  for  use  in,  or  in  connection  with,  the  functions  of  the 
Aviation  Section  of  the  Signal  Corps  placed  in  charge  of  the  Director 
of  Military  Aeronautics  by  subparagraph  (2)  of  paragraph  I  hereof, 
and  the  entire  personnel  of  the  Signal  Corps  in  charge  of  the  Director 
of  Military  Aeronautics  by  subparagraph  (2)  of  paragraph  I  hereof. 

"  (3)  An  executive  agency,  known  as  the  Bureau  of  Aircraft  Pro- 
duction, is  hereby  established,  and  said  agency  shall  exercise  full,  com- 
plete, and  exclusive  jurisdiction  and  control  over  the  production  of 
aeroplanes,  aeroplane  engines,  and  aircraft  equipment  for  the  use  of 
the  Army,  and  to  that  end  shall  forthwith  assume  control  and  juris- 
diction over  all  pending  Government  projects  having  to  do  or  connected 
with  the  production  of  aeroplanes,  aeroplane  engines,  and  aircraft 
equipment  for  the  Army  and  heretofore  conducted  by  the  Signal  Corps 
of  the  Army,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Chief  Signal  Officer;  and  all 
material  on  hand  for  such  production,  all  unfinished  aeroplanes  and 
aeroplane  engines,  and  all  unfinished,  unattached,  or  unassembled  air- 
craft equipment;  all  lands,  buildings,  factories,  warehouses,  machinery, 
tools,  and  appliances,  and  all  other  property,  real,  personal,  or  mixed, 
heretofore  used  in  or  in  connection  with  such  production,  or  procured 
and  now  held  for  such  use,  by  or  under  the  jurisdiction  and  control 
of  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  Army;  all  books,  records,  files,  and  office 
equipment  used  by  the  said  Signal  Corps  in  or  in  connection  with 
such  production;  all  rights  under  contracts  made  by  the  Signal  Corps 
in  or  in  connection  with  such  production;  and  the  entire  personnel  of 


346  APPENDIX    I 

the  Signal  Corps  as  at  present  assigned  to  or  engaged  upon  work  in 
or  in  connection  with  such  production  are  hereby  transferred  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Signal  Corps  and  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Bureau  of  Aircraft  Production,  it  being  the  intent  thereof  to  trans- 
fer from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Signal  Corps  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
said  Bureau  of  Aircraft  Production  every  function,  power,  and  duty 
connected  with  said  production,  all  property  of  every  sort  or  nature 
used  or  procured  for  use  in  or  in  connection  with  said  production,  and 
the  entire  personnel  of  the  Signal  Corps,  as  at  present  assigned  to  or 
engaged  upon  work  in  or  in  connection  with  such  production. 

"  Such  person  as  shall  at  the  time  be  chairman  of  the  Aircraft  Board 
created  by  the  act  of  Congress  approved  October  1,  1917,  shall  also 
be  the  executive  officer  of  said  Bureau  of  Aircraft  Production,  and  he 
shall  be,  and  he  hereby  is,  designated  as  Director  of  Aircraft  Production, 
and  he  shall,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  have  charge 
of  the  activities,  personnel,  and  properties  of  said  bureau. 

II 

"All  unexpended  funds  of  appropriations  heretofore  made  for  the 
Signal  Corps  of  the  Army  and  already  specifically  allotted  for  use  in 
connection  with  the  functions  of  the  Signal  Service  as  denned  and 
limited  by  subparagraph  (1)  of  Paragraph  I  hereof  shall  be  and  remain 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Chief  Signal  Officer;  all  such  funds  already 
specifically  allotted  for  use  in  connection  with  the  functions  of  the 
Aviation  Section  of  the  Signal  Corps  as  defined  and  limited  by  sub- 
paragraph  (2)  of  Paragraph  I  hereof  are  hereby  transferred  to  and 
placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Director  of  Military  Aeronautics 
for  the  purpose  of  meeting  the  obligations  and  expenditures  authorized 
by  said  section;  all  such  funds  already  specifically  allotted  for  use  in 
connection  with  the  functions  hereby  bestowed  upon  the  Bureau  of 
Aircraft  Production,  as  defined  and  limited  by  subparagraph  (3)  of 
Paragraph  I  hereof,  are  hereby  transferred  to  and  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  said  Director  of  Aircraft  Production  for  the  purpose  of 
meeting  the  obligations  and  expenditures  authorized  by  said  bureau 
in  carrying  out  the  duties  and  functions  hereby  transferred  to  and  be- 
stowed upon  said  bureau;  and  in  so  far  as  such  funds  have  not  been 
already  specifically  allotted  to  the  different  fields  of  activity  of  the 
Signal  Corps  as  heretofore  existing,  they  shall  now  be  allotted  by  the 
Secretary  of  War  in  such  proportions  as  shall  to  him  seem  best  intended 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  respective  fields  of  former  activity  of 
the  Signal  Corps  and  the  intention  of  Congress  when  making  said 
appropriations,  and  the  funds  so  allotted  by  the  Secretary  of  War  to 
meet  expenditures  in  the  field  of  activity  of  the  Aviation  Section  of 
the  Signal  Corps  are  hereby  transferred  to  and  placed  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Director  of  Military  Aeronautics  for  the  purpose  of 


APPENDIX    1  347 

meeting  the  obligations  and  expenditures  authorized  by  said  section; 
and  the  funds  so  allotted  by  the  Secretary  of  War  to  meet  the  expendi- 
tures in  that  part  of  the  field  of  activity  of  the  Signal  Corps,  which 
includes  the  functions  hereby  transferred  to  the  Bureau  of  Aircraft 
Production,  are  hereby  transferred  to  and  placed  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Director  of  Aircraft  Production  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  the 
obligations  and  expenditures  authorized  by  said  bureau. 

Ill 

"This  order  shall  be  and  remain  in  full  force  and  effect  during  the 
continuance  of  the  present  war  and  for  six  months  after  the  termina- 
tion thereof  by  the  proclamation  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  or  until  there- 
tofore amended,  modified,  or  rescinded. 

"Under  this  order  Mr.  John  D.  Ryan  continued  as  Director  of  Air- 
craft Production  and  Maj.  Gen.  William  L.  Kenly  became  Director  of 
Military  Aeronautics." 

This  division  of  responsibilities  and  functions  gave  a  clearer  con- 
ception of  the  unique  duties  of  the  Air  Service  in  production  of  planes 
and  training  of  pilots,  and  is  significant,  too,  of  the  many  tactical 
reasons  which  made  it  imperative  for  England  and  France  to  estab- 
lish separate  and  independent  air  services. 

The  end  of  the  fiscal  year  found  this  problem  of  higher  organization 
one  of  the  most  important  to  be  faced.  An  early  defect  discovered  in 
the  reorganization  developed  when  there  appeared  to  be  inadequate 
liaison  between  the  Bureau  of  Aircraft  Production  and  the  Division  of 
Military  Aeronautics.  One  was  responsible  for  the  production  of 
planes,  the  other  for  their  operation  and  military  efficiency.  The 
method  of  selecting  a  type  to  put  into  production  and  the  final  decision 
whether  any  plane  produced  was  suitable  for  its  military  purposes  or 
not,  was  undetermined.  The  situation  of  two  sets  of  officials  with 
equal  authority  in  their  respective  fields  of  action,  neither  responsible 
to  the  other,  at  once  demonstrated  that  neither  could  be  held  for  the 
final  production  of  an  acceptable  plane  for  the  front.  This  was  par- 
tially obviated  by  an  agreement  between  the  Division  of  Military  Aero- 
nautics and  the  Bureau  of  Aircraft  Production  that  the  types  of  plane 
to  be  put  into  production  must  first  be  mutually  agreed  upon,  and 
that  before  a  plane  could  be  sent  to  the  front  it  should  be  given  a  mili- 
tary test  and  accepted  by  the  Division  of  Military  Aeronautics.  But 
considerable  time  was  lost  before  this  policy  was  definitely  arranged, 
a  policy  which  might  easily  have  at  once  been  established  by  a  unified 
department. 

The  personnel  side  of  the  air  service,  including  the  selection,  train- 
ing, organization,  and  operation  of  the  flying  forces,  developed  within 
the  fiscal  year  1917-18  into  an  educational  system  on  a  scale  infinitely 
larger  and  more  diverse  than  anyone  had  anticipated.  Teaching  men 


348  APPENDIX    I 

to  fly,  to  send  messages  by  wireless,  to  operate  machine  guns  in  the 
air,  to  know  artillery  fire  by  its  bursts,  and  to  travel  hundreds  of  miles 
by  compass,  teaching  other  men  to  read  the  enemy's  strategy  from 
aerial  photographs,  and  still  others  to  repair  instruments,  ignition  sys- 
tems, propellers,  aeroplane  wings,  and  motors,  has  required  a  net- 
work of  flying  fields  and  schools,  a  large  instructional  force,  and  a 
maze  of  equipment  and  curricula. 

None  of  this,  practically  speaking,  was  on  hand  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  war,  neither  fields,  instructors,  curricula,  nor,  more  serious  than 
all,  experience  to  show  what  was  to  be  needed.  This  country  had 
never  trained  an  aviator  sufficiently  to  meet  the  demands  of  overseas 
aerial  warfare  and  had  not  the  slightest  knowledge  of  the  instruction 
necessary  for  radio,  photography,  or  enlisted  personnel.  Consequently, 
the  first  men  largely  taught  themselves  before  teaching  others,  and 
experience  led  on  from  one  course  to  the  next. 

First,  in  the  point  of  need,  was  that  of  flying  fields.  Two  were  in 
limited  operation  at  the  outbreak  of  war,  San  Diego  and  Mineola;. 
three  more  were  selected,  cleared,  equipped,  and  made  ready  for  flying 
in  six  weeks'  time,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year  over  a  score  were  in 
operation  all  over  the  country.  All  were  protected  by  a  three-year 
lease  with  option  to  buy,  if  desired,  at  a  fixed  price.  During  the  year 
also  five  supply  depots,  three  concentration  depots,  three  balloon  camps, 
two  repair  depots,  one  experimental  field,  one  radio  laboratory,  and  one 
quarantine  camp  were  built. 

The  selection  of  men  for  training  as  flyers  was  a  complicated  task, 
as  the  requirements  were  necessarily  rigid.  Volunteer  examining  boards 
of  the  highest  medical  skill  were  organized  all  over  the  country,  36 
urban  and  30  divisional  boards,  and  a  total  of  38,777  men  were  exam- 
ined to  June  2,  of  whom  nearly  half,  or  18,004,  were  disqualified.  This 
naturally  led  to  a  high  grade  of  personnel,  and  made  the  later  training 
both  more  rapid  and  more  efficient. 

The  first  step  in  instruction  was  at  one  of  the  new  "ground"  schools 
opened  on  May  21  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Cor- 
nell and  Ohio  State  Universities  and  the  Universities  of  Illinois,  Texas, 
and  California,  with  Princeton  and  the  Georgia  School  of  Technology 
added  on  July  5.  Here,  in  eight  weeks,  under  military  discipline,  the 
cadets  were  grounded  in  all  the  elements  of  aviation  at  a  cost  to  the 
Government  at  first  of  $65  per  pupil,  and  later  $10  each  for  the  first 
four  weeks,  and  $5  weekly  thereafter.  By  June  30,  1918,  a  total  of 
11,539  men  were  graduated  to  the  flying  fields  and  3,129  were  discharged 
for  failure  in  studies,  etc. 

Next  came  the  actual  flying  instruction,  divided  into  two  phases, 
primary  and  advanced.  The  former  averaged  about  eight  weeks,  in- 
cluded ability  to  execute  the  simpler  evolutions  and  cross-country 
flights,  and  led  to  an  officer's  commission  and  the  right  to  wear  the 
Reserve  Military  Aviator's  wings.  To  June  30,  1918,  4,980  men  had 


APPENDIXI  349 

been  graduated  as  Reserve  Military  Aviators  for  final  training,  and 
about  400  had  been  disqualified  as  incapable  of  becoming  flyers. 

The  advanced  training,  however,  presented  infinitely  more  difficulties. 
It  was  not  nearly  so  simple  to  teach  the  more  complex  stunts,  formation 
flying,  aerial  machine  gunnery,  bombing,  and  night  flying,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  highly  specialized  equipment  necessary  required  considera- 
ble time  for  manufacture.  Nevertheless,  advanced  schools  of  the  three 
types  necessary  were  opened  toward  the  end  of  the  year  1918,  with  what 
equipment  was  available,  and  had  graduated  110  bombers,  85  bombing 
pilots,  464  observers,  389  observer  pilots,  and  131  pursuit  pilots  by 
June  30,  1918. 

The  ideal  arrangement  in  mind  at  the  end  of  the  year  was  to  train 
each  pilot  completely  on  this  side  of  the  ocean,  where  facilities  are 
very  good,  supplies  in  abundance,  and  information  and  experienced 
pilots  from  the  front  available  in  ever-increasing  numbers.  The  flyers 
can  then  be  organized  into  provisional  squadrons  and  wings  and  given 
training  as  large  units  with  their  own  administrative  officers  and  en- 
listed personnel  so  that  they  will  be  able  to  go  immediately  to  the 
front,  after  a  month  or  so  of  transformation  work  in  France,  learning 
geography  and  familiarizing  themselves  with  new  types  of  planes. 
Plans  are  under  way  looking  to  the  establishment  of  such  wings  and 
brigades  in  the  United  States  with  the  end  in  view  of  furnishing  com- 
plete and  fully  trained  units  to  the  American  Expeditionary  Force. 

The  whole  training  program  was  considerably  held  up  by  lack  of 
equipment.  Obviously  it  required  far  less  time  to  select  men  for  train- 
ing than  to  build  the  fields,  planes,  and  accessories  necessary  to  train 
them.  Primary  training  planes,  the  only  type  manufactured  here 
before  the  war,  soon  became  available  in  increasing  numbers,  till  by 
the  end  of  the  year  more  were  on  hand  than  needed.  The  advanced 
training  planes,  however,  presented  problems  wholly  new  to  this  coun- 
try, so  that  primary  planes  had  to  be  fitted  with  more  powerful  engines 
and  equipment  and  made  to  serve  the  purpose.  The  first  16  single- 
Beater  pursuit  planes  were  not  delivered  till  January,  1918,  the  first 
bombers  till  March,  and  the  first  gunnery  late  in  May. 

During  this  fiscal  year  a  grand  total  of  407,999  hours  were  flown  by 
Army  aviators  in  the  United  States,  as  contrasted  with  745.5  hours  in 
1914  and  1,269  in  1915.  In  the  single  week  ending  June  30,  1918,  a 
total  of  19,560  hours  were  flown,  or  15  times,  for  that  single  week,  the 
number  of  the  whole  year  three  years  before.  This,  at  75  miles  an 
hour,  is  equivalent  to  over  30,000,000  miles,  or  1,223  times  around  the 
Equator. 

During  it  there  were  152  fatalities,  or  2,684  flying  hours  and  201,000 
miles  flown  to  each  death.  Of  these,  86  were  caused  by  stalls,  when 
the  plane,  usually  through  some  error  by  the  pilot,  lost  its  flying  speed 
and  dropped  into  a  straight  nose  dive  or  turned  into  a  tail  spin,  from 
which  the  pilot  did  not  have  the  time  or  the  skill  to  extricate  it.  Col- 


350  APPENDIX    I 

lisions  were  responsible  for  30  other  accidents,  often  due  to  failure  to 
fly  according  to  the  rules.  Side-slips,  the  only  other  large  cause  of 
accidents,  resulted  in  10  deaths. 

Regrettable  as  these  accidents  are,  it  is  felt  that,  considering  the 
newness  of  the  science,  the  early  state  of  development  of  the  planes, 
the  inexperience  in  instruction,  and  the  necessity  of  teaching  stunts  in 
themselves  rather  dangerous,  this  number  is  not  large.  As  a  matter 
of  actual  statistics,  fatalities  in  American  training  are  less  than  half 
as  large  as  those  of  the  other  allied  countries. 

Besides  flyers,  however,  engineer  officers  to  direct  the  upkeep  of  the 
equipment,  supply  officers  to  keep  sufficient  equipment  on  hand,  and 
adjutants  to  keep  the  records  and  do  other  military  work  had  to  be 
especially  trained.  These  men,  absolutely  essential  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  Air  Service  organization,  could  be  secured  only  after  a  detailed 
course  of  instruction.  An  engineers'  school,  opened  for  a  12  weeks' 
course  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  on  January  12, 
graduated  590  men  and  discharged  228  before  June  30;  a  supply  offi- 
cers' school,  opened  at  the  Georgia  School  of  Technology,  graduated 
852  men  and  discharged  111  from  an  eight  weeks'  course  before  it  was 
closed  on  May  11;  and  an  adjutants'  school,  opened  at  Ohio  State 
University  on  January  12,  graduated  789  and  discharged  97  men  in 
an  eight  weeks'  course  before  it  was  closed  June  22. 

A  six  weeks'  course  for  armament  officers  and  men  to  care  for  ma- 
chine guns  and  bombs  was  opened  at  Fairfield,  Ohio,  on  April  22, 
graduating  95  officers  and  465  men  by  June  30,  all  of  whom  went 
forthwith  overseas.  Just  at  the  end  of  the  year  a  series  of  special 
schools  in  aerial  gunnery  were  opened  as  the  final  step  in  the  flyers' 
training  in  this  country,  graduating  102  pilots,  111  observers,  and  101 
fighting  observers  by  June  30.  Also  a  special  course  for  compass  offi- 
cers was  opened  at  Camp  Dick,  Texas,  on  April  10,  with  53  graduates, 
and  another  course  at  the  same  time  for  a  score  of  navigation  officers. 

Radio  also  required  very  special  instruction,  with  courses  and  in- 
structors for  all  flyers  through  the  various  stages  of  their  progress,  for 
the  receiving  force  on  the  ground,  and  for  the  men  responsible  for  the 
upkeep  of  the  radio  equipment.  At  the  outset,  volunteer  civilians,  each 
with  his  own  methods  of  instruction,  stepped  into  the  breach,  but  by 
.the  end  of  the  year  two  radio  officers,  and  four  enlisted  men's  schools 
were  in  operation  with  49  and  329  graduates,  respectively;  radio  officers 
and  equipment  had  been  sent  to  every  field  and  ground  school;  and 
the  courses  for  flyers  had  been  standardized  all  the  way  through. 

Aerial  photography,  which  had  developed  during  the  war  into  an 
exact  science,  required  similar  triple  instruction — that  for  observers  to 
operate  the  cameras  in  the  air,  intelligence  officers  on  the  ground  to 
interpret  them,  and  enlisted  men  to  aid  in  the  developing,  printing, 
and  enlarging,  and  to  keep  the  equipment  in  condition.  Where  the 
United  States  had  not  even  a  single  aerial  camera  at  the  outbreak  of 


APPENDIX    I  351 

the  war,  by  the  end  of  the  year  there  had  been  opened  on  March  25  a 
large  school  for  developers  and  printers  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  with  680 
graduates  by  June  30,  an  officers'  school  on  January  6  at  Cornell  teach- 
ing map  compilation  and  interpretation,  and  photographic  "huts"  with 
complete  personnel  and  equipment  for  instruction  at  each  of  the  flying 
fields. 

One  of  the  most  serious  problems,  and  one  of  late  development,  was 
that  of  enlisted  men,  the  ground  force  needed  to  keep  the  planes  and 
engines  always  in  prime  condition,  repair  minor  breaks,  tighten  up  wires, 
strengthen  struts,  and  make  sure  that  no  airman  went  up  in  a  faulty 
plane.  This  was  work  wholly  new  to  American  mechanics,  and  of  a 
delicacy  and  carefulness  to  which  they  were  quite  unaccustomed. 
Moreover,  mechanics  of  the  skill  required  had  largely  been  drained  off 
by  the  draft,  by  enlistment,  or  by  other  war  industries. 

Consequently,  a  whole  series  of  schools  was  necessary.  At  first,  in 
the  fall  small  detachments  of  mechanics  were  sent  to  various  factories 
— ignition,  magneto,  propeller,  welding,  instruments,  sail-making, 
cabinet  work,  copper  work,  machine  guns,  and  motors  to  secure  as  much 
experience  as  possible.  While  about  2,000  men  were  being  graduated 
from  17  courses  at  34  different  schools  of  this  type,  more  fully  worked 
out  courses  were  established  at  five  northern  flying  fields  closed  for 
flying  during  the  winter.  With  2,500  graduated  here,  still  more  de- 
tailed courses  were  opened  at  four  large  mechanics'  schools,  which 
added  another  5,000  men.  By  the  end  of  the  year  two  large  and  com- 
plete Government  schools  were  in  operation  at  Kelly  Field,  Texas,  and 
St.  Paul,  Minn.,  capable  of  graduating  5,000  men  every  three  months. 

A  noteworthy  event  of  the  year  was  the  opening  on  May  15  of  the 
first  regular  aerial  mail  service  in  the  United  States  between  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Washington.  The  Army  furnished  six  planes  and 
pilots,  shortly  doubled,  for  a  daily  round  trip,  carrying  about  350 
pounds  of  mail  each  way,  and  with  a  record  of  50  minutes  for  the  90 
miles  between  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  and  1  hour  and  50  minutes 
for  the  135  miles  from  Philadelphia  to  Washington.  Ninety  per  cent 
of  the  trips  were  made  successfully. 

Another  vitally  important  phase  of  the  Air  Service  is  that  of  bal- 
looning, which  during  the  war  has  been  developing  into  a  system  of 
ever-watchful  sentries  on  guard  all  the  way  from  the  North  Sea  to 
Switzerland.  Less  spectacular,  perhaps,  than  the  heavier-than-air 
work,  this  branch  of  the  service  has  a  quite  indispensable  function. 
The  observer,  swinging  in  a  captive  balloon  at  an  altitude  of  a  mile, 
2  to  5  miles  from  the  enemy's  lines,  and  with  a  range  of  vision  of  8 
miles  in  all  directions,  can  make  a  far  more  detailed,  minute-by-minute 
analysis  of  the  enemy's  movements  than  the  wider  visioned  but  tran- 
sitory aviator,  and  can  maintain  such  a  flow  of  minute  information  to 
the  staff  below  that  no  important  movement  can  take  place  unobserved 
within  his  view. 


352  APPENDIX    I 

Here,  also,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  the  United  States  was  prac- 
tically without  facilities.  The  only  school  was  at  Fort  Omaha,  Nebr., 
recovered  from  complete  abandonment  the  previous  November,  with 
accommodations  for  15  officers  and  400  men,  and  equipment  of  balloon 
shed,  gas  plant,  two  obsolete  captive  balloons,  and  some  telephone 
material.  The  original  program  of  August  13  necessitated  a  very  large 
expansion,  fully  comparable  to  that  in  the  heavier-than-air  branch. 

To  meet  the  program  the  Fort  Omaha  school  was  enlarged  in  Sep- 
tember to  accommodate  61  officers  and  1,200  men;  on  December  28 
Camp  John  Wise  was  opened  at  San  Antonio  with  a  final  capacity  of 
150  officers  and  2,200  men,  and  special  companies  were  sent  to  Fort 
Sill,  Okla.,  for  cooperation  with  the  Coast  Artillery.  By  June  30, 
440  balloon  officers  had  graduated,  of  whom  155  were  fully  qualified 
observers,  and  73  had  been  sent  overseas.  The  enlisted  strength  stood 
at  9,621  with  1,382  abroad. 

Thus,  by  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year,  the  Air  Service  had  in  operation 
an  educational  system  complete  in  all  the  details  necessary  to  man  this 
intricate  service.  Fields,  curricula,  instructors,  and  equipment  were 
on  hand  for  the  most  diverse  courses,  and  men  were  graduating  in 
hundreds  trained  to  all  the  difficulties  of  operating  aeroplanes  and 
translating  their  work  into  effective  action.  A  total  of  34,209  men 
had  been  graduated  from  the  various  courses,  with  20,976  men  en- 
rolled in  50  schools  of  16  different  types. 

Many  outside  bodies  were  called  upon  to  cooperate  in  this  develop- 
ment. Great  Britain,  France,  and  Italy  all  early  established  large 
aviation  missions  hi  Washington  which  brought  their  three  years  of 
experience  to  help  solve  problems  confronted  here  for  the  first  time. 
The  National  Advisory  Committee  for  Aeronautics,  the  Bureau  of 
Standards,  and  several  joint  Army  and  Navy  Boards  also  added  their 
information  on  the  subject. 

Nevertheless  the  work  was  carried  out  under  extreme  difficulties. 
Operation  and  production  were  not  properly  coordinated.  Much  time 
was  lost  in  having  to  obtain  the  necessary  authority  to  build  a  new 
field  or  secure  increases  in  personnel,  instead  of  being  able  to  carry 
out  a  main  program  with  full  independence  and  authority.  Moreover, 
experienced  and  trained  personnel  was  lacking;  work  had  to  be  done 
while  the  actual  organization  to  do  it  was  being  built  up;  much  time 
was  lost  in  the  expansion  and  moving  about  of  offices  in  Washington, 
some  half  a  dozen  times;  while  officers  were  constantly  being  shifted 
between  Washington,  the  fields,  and  overseas. 

Meanwhile  overseas,  work  of  organization  was  similarly  going  on. 
Hardly  six  weeks  after  the  United  States  entered  the  war,  namely, 
on  May  27,  the  first  cadets  sailed  for  France  for  training  in  the  highly 
developed  French  flying  schools,  till  by  the  end  of  the  year  nearly 
2,500  men  were  under  instruction  in  France,  England,  Italy,  and 
Canada.  The  collapse  of  Russia,  Italy's  serious  defeat,  and  the  weight 


APPENDIX    I  353 

thrown  on  the  allied  services  made  it  impossible,  unfortunately,  for 
the  Allies  to  meet  the  schedule  of  training  planes  necessary,  so  that 
many  of  these  cadets,  the  most  promising  of  America's  material,  were 
in  idleness  for  months.  Nevertheless,  what  facilities  were  available 
greatly  advanced  America's  aerial  preparation  and  helped  relieve  the 
shortage  of  equipment  here.  It  was  early  hi  May,  1918,  however,  over 
a  year  after  America's  entry  into  the  war,  that  the  first  German  plane 
fell  victim  to  an  aviator  in  the  American  service.  About  the  same 
time  468  fully  trained  American  aviators  organized  into  13  complete 
American  squadrons  or  brigades  with  British  and  French  squadrons 
were  actually  on  the  front,  taking  increasing  toll  of  the  enemy. 

During  the  same  time  an  enlisted  force  of  46,667  men  had  also  been 
sent  overseas.  The  first  to  go  were  sent  to  France  to  lay  the  founda- 
tions for  the  great  organization  soon  to  be  built  up,  including  training 
fields,  assembly  depots  for  American-built  planes,  and  aerodromes  near 
the  front.  Others  were  formed  into  service  squadrons  in  England  and 
France  to  be  ready  as  soon  as  American  pilots  were  trained  into  their 
own  organizations.  Still  others  went  to  relieve  French  skilled  labor 
of  unskilled  work  so  that  they  could  go  back  into  aeroplane  factories, 
while  others  went  to  England  for  the  construction  work  necessary  to 
carry  out  the  night  bombing  program. 

Consequently,  by  June  30,  1918,  two  large  training  organizations 
were  in  operation,  the  source  of  supply  in  this  country  training  and 
organizing  thousands  of  pilots  and  men  in  all  sorts  of  tasks  and  the 
operation  end  overseas  giving  the  final  training  in  France,  England, 
and  Italy  the  fast  moving  of  fully  trained  squadrons  to  the  front. 

Where,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  there  had  been  but  65  officers 
in  the  Air  Service,  there  were  now  14,230;  the  enlisted  strength,  simi- 
larly, had  jumped  from  1,120  to  124,767;  the  number  of  men  in  or 
awaiting  training  for  flyers  from  less  than  100  to  over  18,000.  There 
were  4,872  officers  and  46,667  enlisted  men  overseas.  Indeed,  the 
Air  Service  alone  was  by  June  30, 1918,  larger  than  the  American  Army 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  war.  While  its  development  had  been  infinitely 
more  complicated  and  much  less  rapid  than  expected,  there  is  reason 
to  believe  that  it  is  essentially  sound. 

WILLIAM  L.  KENLY, 
MajorJjfeneral,  U.S.  A., 
Director  of  Military  Aeronautics. 

The  Secretary  of  War. 


APPENDIX  II 

RECORDS  OF  ALLIED  AND  ENEMY  ACES  WITH 
NUMBER  OF  PLANES  BROUGHT  DOWN 

K— Killed.    D— Dead.    C-Captured.    W— Wounded. 

BRITISH  ACES 

Major  E.  Mannock  (k) 73 

Colonel  William  A.  Bishop 72 

Major  Raymond  Collishaw 70 

Captain  James  McCudden  (k) 58 

Captain  Philip  F.  Fullard 48 

Captain  Donald  E.  McLaren  (k) 48 

Captain  G.  E.  H.  McElroy 46 

Captain  Albert  Ball  (k) 43 

Captain  J.  I.  T.  Jones 40 

Captain  A.  W.  B.  Proctor 3£ 

Major  Roderic  S.  Dallas 39 

Captain  W.  G.  Claxton  (k) 37 

Captain  F.  R.  McCall 34 

Captain  Frank  G.  Quigley 34 

Major  Albert  D.  Carter 31 

Captain  Cedric  E.  Howell 30 

Captain  A.  E.  McKeever 30 

Captain  Henry  W.  Wollett 28 

Captain  Brunwin-Hales , 27 

Major  William  G.  Barker 2£ 

Captain  W.  L.  Jordan 25 

Captain  John  Andrews,  (Lieutenant,  9) 24 

Captain  Francis  McCubbin 23 

Captain  M.  B.  Frew,  (Lieutenant,  8). ,. .  23 

Captain  John  Gilmour 23 

Captain  E.  Libby 

Captain  Robert  A.  Little 22 

Captain  A.  H.  Cobby 21 

Captain  G.  E.  Thomson  (k) 21 

Lieutenant  John  J.  Malone 20 

Lieutenant  Allen  Wilkenson 19 

354 


APPENDIX    II  355 

Captain  E.  G.  McClaughey 19 

Captain  J.  L.  Trollope  (c) 18 

Captain  Stanley  Rosever  (d) 18 

Lieutenant  Leonard  M.  Barlow 17 

Captain  Walter  A.  Tyrrell 15 

Captain  P.  C.  Carpenter 15 

Lieutenant  Clive  Warman 15 

Lieutenant  Clive  F.  Collett  (k) 15 

Lieutenant  Fred  Libby 14 

Lieutenant  R.  T.  C.  Hoidge 14 

Captain  H.  G.  Reeves  (accident) 13 

Captain  Murray  Galbraith 13 

Lieutenant  Joseph  S.  Fall 13 

Captain  Noel  W.  W.  Webb  (k) 12 

Lieutenant  A.  J.  Cowper 12 

Lieutenant  Alan  Gerard 12 

Captain  Whitaker  (in  Italy) 12 

Lieutenant  M.  D.  G.  Scott 11 

Captain  Robert  Dodds 11 

Captain  Gilbert  Ware  Green 9 

Lieutenant  K.  R.  Park 9 

Lieutenant  Rhys-David 9 

Lieutenant  John  H.  T.  Letts 8 

Captain  James  A.  Slater 8 

Sergeant  Dean  K.  Lamb 8 

Lieutenant  Boyd  S.  Breadner 8 

Captain  Wagour  (in  Italy) 7 

Lieutenant  Edward  A.  Clear 7 

Captain  Henry  G.  Luchford  (k) 7 

Captain  C.  A.  Brewster-Joske 7 

Lieutenant  A.  S.  Sheppard 7 

Lieutenant  James  Dennis  Payne 7 

Lieutenant  Lionel  B.  Jones 7 

Captain  Lancelot  L.  Richardson 6 

Lieutenant  Cecil  Roy  Richards 6 

Lieutenant  Howard  Saint 6 

Lieutenant  Fred  John  Gibbs 6 

Lieutenant  C.  W.  Cuddemore 6 

Captain  H.  T.  Mellings  (w) 5 

Commander  R.  F.  Minifie  (c) 5 

Lieutenant  Langley  F.  W.  Smith 5 

Lieutenant  Ellis  Vair  Reed 5 

Captain  R.  W.  Chappell 5 

Captain  G.  H.  Boarman 5 

Lieutenant  F.  T.  S.  Menedex 5 

Captain  Kennedy  C.  Patrick 5 


356  APPENDIX    II 

Sergeant  T.  P.  Stephenson 5 

Lieutenant  William  Lewis  Wells 5 

Lieutenant  E.  D.  Clarke 5 

Captain  Fred  Hope  Lawrence 5 

Lieutenant  Edward  R.  Grange 5 

Lieutenant  W.  G.  Miggett 5 

Lieutenant  Lawrence  W.  Allen 5 

Lieutenant  William  D.  Matheson 5 

Lieutenant  Stanley  J.  Coble 5 

Captain  S.  T.  Edwards 4 

Captain  A.  R.  Brown 4 

Captain  A.  T.  Whealy 4 

Captain  T.  F.  LeMesuries 4 

Commander  F.  C.  Armstrong 4 

Commander  E.  L.  N.  Clarke 4 

Commander  R.  B.  Munday 4 

Commander  G.  W.  Price 4 

Commander  R.  J.  O.  Compston 4 

Lieutenant  V.  R.  Stockes 4 

Lieutenant  W.  C.  Canbray 4 

Lieutenant  G.  T.  Beamish 3 

Lieutenant  E.  T.  Hayne 3 

Lieutenant  G.  W.  Hemming 3 

Lieutenant  J.  E.  L.  Hunter 3 

Lieutenant  W.  A.  Curtiss 3 

Lieutenant  G.  R.  Crole 3 

Lieutenant  Robert  N.  Hall 3 

Lieutenant  David  S.  Hall 3 

Lieutenant  M.  F.  G.  Day 3 

Lieutenant  E.  G.  Johnson 3 

Lieutenant  M.  H.  Findlay 3 

Lieutenant  C.  B.  Ridley 3 

Lieutenant  S.  B.  Horn , 3 

Lieutenant  K.  K.  Muspratt 3 

FRENCH  ACES 

Lieutenant  Rene  Fonck 75 

Captain  Georges  Guynemer  (k) 53 

Lieutenant  Charles  Nungesser 43 

Lieutenant  Georges  Madon 41 

Lieutenant  Maurice  Boyau  (k) , 35 

Lieutenant  Coeffard  (k) 34 

Captain  Pinsard 27 

Lieutenant  Rene  Donne  (m) 23 

Lieutenant  Guerin  (k) 23 


APPENDIX    II  357 

Captain  Heurteaux 21^, 

Sergeant  Marinovitch 21 

Lieutenant  Deullin 20 

Adjutant  Ehrlich 19 

Lieutenant  de  Slade 19 

Lieutenant  Jean  Chaput  (k) 16 

Lieutenant  de  Turrenne 15 

Lieutenant  de  Meuldre  (k) 13 

Lieutenant  Garaud 13 

Lieutenant  Nogues 13 

Lieutenant  Jailler 1£ 

Lieutenant  Marcel  Hughes 12 

Lieutenant  Navarre  (w) 12 

Lieutenant  Tarascon 12 

Lieutenant  de  Sevin 12 

Adjutant  Casale 12 

Lieutenant  Leps 12 

Lieutenant  de  La  Tour  (k) 11 

Adjutant  Maxime  Lenoire  (k) 11 

Lieutenant  Sardier. 11 

Lieutenant  Ortoli 11 

Sergeant  Montrion  (k) 11 

Adjutant  Herrison 11 

Sergeant  Bouyer 11 

Lieutenant  Bourgade 10 

Adjutant  Herbelin 10 

Sergeant  Quette  (k) 10 

Captain  Georges  Matton * 9 

Adjutant  Chainat 9 

Adjutant  Dauchy 9 

Lieutenant  Viallet 9 

Sergeant  Sauvage  (k) 8 

Lieutenant  de  Rochefort  (k) 7 

Captain  Rene  Doumer  (k) 7 

Captain  Alfred  Auger  (k) 7 

Lieutenant  Henri  Languedoc  (k) 7 

Captain  Derode 7 

Lieutenant  Lachmann 7 

Lieutenant  Flachaire 7 

Adjutant  Vitallis 7 

Adjutant  Sayaret 7 

Lieutenant  L'Hoste 7 

Lieutenant  Raymond 6 

Sergeant  du  Bois  d'Aische 6 

Lieutenant  Covin 6 

Lieutenant  Bonnefoy 6 


358  APPENDIX    II 

Lieutenant  Gond 6 

Lieutenant  Soulier 6 

Sergeant  Boyau 6 

Adjutant  Dhome '. 6 

Adjutant  Peronneau 6 

Sergeant  Rousseau 6 

Private  Louis  Martin 6 

Lieutenant  de  Mortemart  (k) 6 

Lieutenant  Adolph  Pegoud  (k) 6 

Sergeant  Marcel  Hauss  (k) 5 

Captain  Lecour-Grandmaison  (k) 5 

Lieutenant  Georges  Baillot  (k) 5 

Adjutant  Pierre  Violet  (k) 5 

Lieutenant  Andre  Delorme  (k) 5 

Lieutenant  Borzecky 5 

Lieutenant  Paul  Gastin 5 

Adjutant  Bloch 5 

Lieutenant  Regnier 5 

Commander  Marancourt 5 

Adjutant  Blanc 5 

Lieutenant  Marty 5 

Adjutant  de  Pralines . . . 5 

<•'*  VW\  A  A/ 
HUN  ACES 

Captain  von  Richthof  en  (k) 80 

Lieutenant  Udet 60 

Lieutenant  Werner  Voss  Cref eld  (k) 49 

Captain  Boelke  (k) 40 

Lieutenant  Gontermann  (k) 39 

Lieutenant  Max  Muller  (k) 38 

Lieutenant  Bongartz 36 

Captain  Brunowsky  (Austrian) 34 

Lieutenant  Max  Buckler  (k) 34 

Lieutenant  Menckhoff 34. 

Captain  Berthold 33 

Lieutenant  Loerzer 33 

Lieutenant  Cort  Wolff  (k) 33 

Lieutenant  Koenneke 32 

Lieutenant  Balle 31 

Lieutenant  Schleich 30 

Lieutenant  Schaeffer  (k) 30 

Lieutenant  Almenroder  (k) 30 

Lieutenant  von  Richthofen 29 

Lieutenant  Kroll 2$ 

Lieutenant  Prince  von  Bulow  (k) 28 


APPENDIX    II  359 

Lieutenant  Wuesthoff  (k) 28 

Lieutenant  Laumen 28 

Lieutenant  Boerr 28 

Lieutenant  Huey 28 

Lieutenant  Blume 28 

Lieutenant  Lowenhardt  (k) 27 

Captain  von  Tutscheck  (k) 27 

Lieutenant  Barnett  (k) 27 

Lieutenant  Dosler  (k) 26 

Lieutenant  Arigi  (Austrian) 26 

Lieutenant  Peutter  (k) 25 

Lieutenant  Veltgens  (k) 24 

Lieutenant  Erwin  Boehm  (k) 24 

Corporal  Rumey 23 

Lieutenant  Kirstein  (k) 23 

Lieutenant  Link  Crawford  (k) 23 

Lieutenant  Fiala  (Austrian) 23 

Captain  Baumer 23 

Lieutenant  Jakobs 22 

Lieutenant  Klein 22 

Lieutenant  Cluffort 22 

Lieutenant  Friedrichs  (k) 21 

Lieutenant  Billik  (k) 21 

Lieutenant  Wimdische  (k) 21 

Lieutenant  Adam 21 

Lieutenant  Grein 20 

Lieutenant  Buechner 20 

Lieutenant  Thuy 20 

Lieutenant  von  Tschwibon 20 

Captain  Reinhardt 20 

Lieutenant  von  Eschwege  (k) 20 

Lieutenant  Bethge  (k) 20 

Captain  Behr 19 

Lieutenant  Thulzer 19 

Lieutenant  Baldamus 18 

Lieutenant  Wintgens  (k) 18 

Lieutenant  Frankel  (k) 17 

Lieutenant  Kissenberth 17 

Lieutenant  Schmidt 15 

Lieutenant  Geigle  (k) 15 

Lieutenant  Schneider 15 

Lieutenant  Immelmann , 15 

Lieutenant  Nathanall 14 

Lieutenant  Dassenbach 14 

Lieutenant  Festner 13 

Lieutenant  Hess . .                                                             13 


360  APPENDIX    II 

Lieutenant  Muller 13 

Lieutenant  Goettsch 13 

Lieutenant  Pfeiffer 12 

Lieutenant  Manschatt  (k) 12 

Lieutenant  Hohnforf  (k) 12 

Lieutenant  Muttschaat  12 

Lieutenant  Buddecke  (k) 12 

Lieutenant  von  Kendall  (k) 11 

Lieutenant  Kirmaier 11 

Lieutenant  Theiller 11 

Lieutenant  Serfert 11 

Lieutenant  Goering . 10 

Lieutenant  Mulzer 10 

Lieutenant  Frickart 9 

Lieutenant  Banfield 9 

Lieutenant  Leffers  (k) 9 

Lieutenant  Schulte 9 

Lieutenant  Parschau  (k) 8 

Lieutenant  Schilling 8 

Lieutenant  von  Althaus 8 

Lieutenant  Esswein 6 

Lieutenant  Walz 6 

Lieutenant  Hehn 6 

Lieutenant  Koenig 6 

Lieutenant  Fahlbusch 5 

Lieutenant  von  Siedlitz 5 

Lieutenant  Rosenkranz 5 

Lieutenant  Habor '.'.'.", 5 

Lieutenant  Reimann 5 

Captain  Zander 5 

Lieutenant  Brauneck 5 

Lieutenant  Ullmer 5 

Lieutenant  Roth 5 

ITALIAN  ACES 

Major  Baracca  (k) 36 

Lieutenant  Flavio  Barachini , 31 

Lieutenant  Olivari  (k) 21 

Lieutenant  Anchilotti 19 

Colonel  Piccio 17 

Captain,  Duke  Calabria 16 

Lieutenant  Scaroni 13 

Lieutenant  Hanza 11 

Sergeant  Maisero 8 

Lieutenant  Parnis. . ,  7 


APPENDIX    II  361 

Sergeant  Poll 6 

Lieutenant  Luigi  Olivi 6 

Lieutenant  Stophanni 6 

Lieutenant  Arrigoni 5 

BELGIAN  ACES 

Lieutenant  Coppens 30 

Lieutenant  de  Meulemesster 10 

Lieutenant  Thieffry  (k) 10 

Lieutenant  Jan  Olieslagers 6 

Adjutant  Beulemest 6 

Captain  Jaquette 5 

Lieutenant  Robin 5 

Lieutenant  Medaets 5 

RUSSIAN  ACES 

Captain  Kosakoff 17 

Captain  Kroutenn  (k) 6 

Lieutenant  Pachtchenko 5 

TURKISH  ACE 

Captain  Schetz 8 


APPENDIX  III 

NOMENCLATURE  FOR  AERONAUTICS 

BY  THE  NATIONAL  ADVISORY  COMMITTEE  FOR  AERONAUTICS 

INTRODUCTION 

The  following  nomenclature  was  adopted  by  the  National 
Advisory  Committee  for  Aeronautics  at  its  annual  meeting 
October  10,  1918. 

The  purpose  of  its  adoption  and  publication  is  to  help  secure 
uniformity  in  the  official  documents  of  the  government  as  well 
as  in  the  technical  journals. 

AERONAUTICAL  NOMENCLATURE 

AEROFOIL:  A  winglike  structure,  flat  or  curved,  designed  to 

obtain  reaction  upon  its  surfaces  from  the  air  through  which 

it  moves. 
AEROFOIL  SECTION:  A  section  of  an  aerofoil  made  by  a  plane 

parallel  to  the  plane  of  symmetry  of  the  aerofoil. 
AEROPLANE:  See  Airplane. 
AILERON:  A  movable  auxiliary  surface,  usually  part  of  the 

trailing  edge  of  a  wing,  the  function  of  which  is  to  control 

the  lateral  attitude  of  an  airplane  by  rotating  it  about  its 

longitudinal  axis. 
AIRCRAFT:  Any  form  of  craft  designed  for  the  navigation  of  the 

air — airplanes,    airships,    balloons,    helicopters,    kites,    kite 

balloons,  ornithopters,  gliders,  etc. 
AIRPLANE:  A  form  of  aircraft  heavier  than  air  which  has  wing 

surfaces  for  support  in  the  air,  with  stabilizing  surfaces, 

rudders  for  steering,  and  power  plant  for  propulsion  through 

362 


APPENDIX    III  363 

the  air.  This  term  is  commonly  used  in  a  more  restricted 
sense  to  refer  to  airplanes  fitted  with  landing  gear  suited  to 
operation  from  the  land.  If  the  landing  gear  is  suited  to 
operation  from  the  water,  the  term  "seaplane"  is  used.  (See 
definition.) 
Pusher. — A  type  of  airplane  with  the  propeller  in  the  rear 

of  the  engine. 
Tractor. — A  type  of  airplane  with  the  propeller  in  front  of 

the  engine. 

AIRSHIP:  A  form  of  balloon,  the  outer  envelope  of  which  is  of 
elongated  form,  provided  with  a  propelling  system,  car, 
rudders,  and  stabilizing  surfaces. 

Nonrigid. — An  airship  whose  form  is  maintained  by  the 
pressure  of  the  contained  gas  assisted  by  the  car-suspen- 
sion system. 
Rigid. — An  airship  whose  form  is  maintained  by  a  rigid 

structure  contained  within  the  envelope. 
Semirigid. — An  airship  whose  form  is  maintained  by  means 

of  a  rigid  keel  and  by  gas  pressure. 
AIR-SPEED  METER:  An  instrument  designed  to  measure  the 

speed  of  an  aircraft  with  reference  to  the  air. 
ALTIMETER:  An  aneroid  mounted  on  an  aircraft  to  indicate 
continuously  its  height  above  the  surface  of  the  earth.     Its 
dial  is  marked  in  feet,  yards,  or  meters. 
ANEMOMETER:  Any  instrument  for  measuring  the  velocity  of 

the  wind. 
ANGLE: 

Of  attack  (or  of  incidence)  of  an  aerofoil. — The  acute  angle 
between  the  direction  of  the  relative  wind  and  the 
chord  of  an  aerofoil;  i.  e.,  the  angle  between  the  chord 
of  an  aerofoil  and  its  motion  relative  to  the  air.  (This 
definition  may  be  extended  to  any  body  having  an  axis.) 
Critical. — The  angle  of  attack  at  which  the  lift-curve  has 
its  first  maximum;  sometimes  referred  to  as  the  "bur- 
ble point." 


364  APPENDIX    III 

Gliding. — The  angle  the  flight  path  makes  with  the  hori- 
zontal when  descending  in  still  air  under  the  influence 
of  gravity  alone;  i.  e.,  without  power  from  the  engine. 

ANGLE  OF  INCIDENCE  (in  directions  for  rigging) :  In  the  process 
of  rigging  an  airplane  some  arbitrary  definite  line  in  the  air- 
plane is  kept  horizontal;  the  angle  of  incidence  of  a  wing, 
or  of  any  aerofoil,  is  the  angle  between  its  chord  and  this 
horizontal  line,  which  usually  is  the  line  of  the  upper  longi- 
tudinals of  the  fuselage  or  nacelle. 

APPENDIX:  The  hose  at  the  bottom  of  a  balloon  used  for  in- 
flation. In  the  case  of  a  spherical  balloon  it  also  serves  for 
equalization  of  pressure. 

ASPECT  RATIO:  The  ratio  of  span  to  chord  of  an  aerofoil. 

ATTITUDE:  The  attitude  of  an  aircraft  is  determined  by  the 
inclination  of  its  axes  to  the  "frame  of  reference";  e.  g.,  the 
earth,  or  the  relative  wind. 

AVIATOR:  The  operator  or  pilot  of  heavier-than-air  craft.  This 
term  is  applied  regardless  of  the  sex  of  the  operator. 

AXES  OF  AN  AIRCRAFT:  Three  fixed  lines  of  reference;  usually 
centroidal  and  mutually  rectangular. 

The  principal  longitudinal  axis  in  the  plane  of  symmetry, 
usually  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  propeller,  is  called  the 
longitudinal  axis;  the  axis  perpendicular  to  this  in  the  plane 
of  symmetry  is  called  the  normal  axis;  and  the  third  axis, 
perpendicular  to  the  other  two,  is  called  the  lateral  axis. 
In  mathematical  discussions  the  first  of  these  axes,  drawn 
from  front  to  rear,  is  called  the  X  axis;  the  second,  drawn 
upward,  the  Z  axis;  and  the  third,  running  from  right  to 
left,  the  Y  axis. 

BALANCING  FLAPS:  See  Aileron. 

BALLONET:  A  small  balloon  within  the  interior  of  a  balloon  or 
airship  for  the  purpose  of  controlling  the  ascent  or  descent 
and  for  maintaining  pressure  on  the  outer  envelope  so  as  to 
prevent  deformation.  The  ballonet  is  kept  inflated  with 
air  at  the  required  pressure,  under  the  control  of  valves  by 


APPENDIX    III  365 

a  blower  or  by  the  action  of  the  wind  caught  in  an  air- 
scoop. 

BALLOON:  A  form  of  aircraft  comprising  a  gas  bag,  rigging  and 
a  basket.  The  support  in  the  air  results  from  the  buoyancy 
of  the  air  displaced  by  the  gas  bag,  the  form  of  which  is 
maintained  by  the  pressure  of  a  contained  gas  lighter  than 
air. 

Barrage. — A  small  spherical  captive  balloon,  raised  as  a 

protection  against  attacks  by  airplanes. 
Captive. — A  balloon  restrained  from  free  flight  by  means 

of  a  cable  attaching  it  to  the  earth. 

Kite. — An  elongated  form  of  captive  balloon,  fitted  with 

tail  appendages  to  keep  it  headed  into  the  wind,  and 

deriving  increased  lift  due  to  its  axis  being  inclined  to 

the  wind. 

Pilot. — A  small  spherical  balloon  sent  up  to  show  the 

direction  of  the  wind. 

Sounding. — A  small  spherical  balloon  sent  aloft  without 
passengers  but  with  registering  meteorological  instru- 
ments. 
BALLOON  BED:  A  mooring  place  on  the  ground  for  a  captive 

balloon. 
BALLOON  CLOTH:  The  cloth,  usually  cotton,  of  which  balloon 

fabrics  are  made. 

BALLOON  FABRIC:  The  finished  material,  usually  rubberized, 
'  of  which  balloon  envelopes  are  made. 

BANK:  To  incline  an  airplane  laterally — i.  e.,  to  roll  it  about 
the  longitudinal  axes.  Right  bank  is  to  incline  the  airplane 
with  the  right  wing  down.  Also  used  as  a  noun  to  describe 
the  position  of  an  airplane  when  its  lateral  axis  is  inclined 
to  the  horizontal. 

BANK,  ANGLE  OF:  The  angle  through  which  an  aircraft  must  be 
rotated  about  its  longitudinal  axis  in  order  to  bring  its  lateral 
axis  into  the  horizontal  plane. 
BAROGRAPH:  An  instrument  used  to  record  variations  in  baro- 


366  APPENDIX    III 

metric  pressure.  In  aeronautics  the  charts  on  which  the 
records  are  made  indicate  altitudes  directly  instead  of 
barometric  pressures. 

BASKET:  The  car  suspended  beneath  a  balloon,  for  passengers, 
ballast,  etc. 

BIPLANE:  A  form  of  airplane  in  which  the  main  supporting  sur- 
face is  divided  into  two  parts,  one  above  the  other. 

BODY  OF  AN  AIRPLANE:  See  Fuselage  and  Nacelle. 

BONNET:  The  appliance,  having  the  form  of  a  parasol,  which 
protects  the  valve  of  a  spherical  balloon  against  rain. 

BRIDLE:  The  system  of  attachment  of  cable  to  a  balloon, 
including  lines  to  the  suspension  band. 

BULL'S-EYES:  Small  rings  of  wood,  metal,  etc.,  forming  part  of 
balloon  rigging,  used  for  connection  or  adjustment  of  ropes. 

BURBLE  POINT:  See  Angle,  critical. 

CABANE:  A  pyramidal  framework  upon  the  wing  of  an  air- 
plane, to  which  stays,  etc.,  are  secured. 

CAMBER:  The  convexity  or  rise  of  the  curve  of  an  aerofoil 
from  its  chord,  usually  expressed  as  the  ratio  of  the  maxi- 
mum departure  of  the  curve  from  the  chord  to  the  length  of 
the  chord.  "Top  camber"  refers  to  the  top  surface  of  an 
aerofoil,  and  "bottom  camber"  to  the  bottom  surface; 
"mean  camber"  is  the  mean  of  these  two. 

CAPACITY:  See  Load.    The  cubic  contents  of  a  balloon. 

CEILING:  Service. — The  height  above  sea  level  at  which  a  given 

aircraft  ceases  to  rise  at  a  rate  higher  than  a  small  specified 

one,  say  100  feet  per  minute.    This  specified  rate  may  be 

different  in  the  services  of  different  countries. 

Absolute. — The  maximum  height  above  sea  level  to  which 

a  given  aircraft  can  rise. 

Theoretical. — The  limiting  height  to  which  a  given  air- 
craft can  rise  determined  by  computations  of  perform- 
ance, based  upon  the  drawings  and  wind  tunnel  data. 

CENTER  OF  PRESSURE  OF  AN  AEROFOIL:  The  point  in  the  plane 
of  the  chords  of  an  aerofoil,  prolonged  if  necessary,  through 


APPENDIX    III  367 

which  at  any  given  attitude  the  line  of  action  of  the  resultant 
air  force  passes.     (This  definition  may  be  extended  to  any 
body.) 
CHORD  OF  AN  AEROFOIL  SECTION: 

For  theoretical  purposes. — The  zero  lift  line,  i.  e.,  the  limit- 
ing position,  in  the  section,  of  the  line  of  action  of  the 
resultant  air  force  when  the  position  of  the  section  is  such 
that  the  lift  is  zero. 

Practical. — The  line  of  a  straightedge  brought  into  contact 
with  the  lower  surface  of  the  section  at  points  near  its 
edges.  In  the  case  of  an  aerofoil  having  double  convex 
camber,  the  straight  line  joining  the  entering  and  trail- 
ing edges. 

Length. — The  length  of  the  chord  is  the  length  of  the  pro- 
jection of  the  aerofoil  section  on  its  chord. 
CLINOMETER:  See  Inclinometer. 
CONCENTRATION  RING:  A  hoop  to  which  are  attached  the  ropes 

suspending  the  basket  of  a  spherical  balloon. 
CONTROLS:  A  general  term  applying  to  the  means  provided  for 
operating  the  devices  used  to  control  speed,  direction  of 
flight,  and  attitude  of  an  aircraft. 

CONTROL  COLUMN:  The  vertical  lever  by  means  of  which  cer- 
tain of  the  principal  controls  are  operated,  usually  those  for 
pitching  and  rolling. 

CROSS-WIND  FORCE:  The  component  perpendicular  to  the  lift 
and  to  the  drag  of  the  total  force  on  an  aircraft  due  to  the 
air  through  which  it  moves. 

CROW'S-FOOT:  A  system  of  diverging  short  ropes  for  distribut- 
ing the  pull  of  a  single  rope. 

DECALAGE:  The  angle  between  the  chords  of  the  principal  and 
the  tail  planes  of  a  monoplane.  The  same  term  may  be 
applied  to  the  corresponding  angle  between  the  direction  of 
the  chord  or  chords  of  a  biplane  and  the  direction  of  a  tail 
plane.  (This  angle  is  also  sometimes  known  as  the  longi- 
tudinal V  of  the  two  planes.) 


368  APPENDIX    III 

DIHEDRAL  IN  AN  AIRPLANE:  The  angle  included  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  imaginary  surfaces  containing  the  chords  of 
the  right  and  left  planes  (continued  to  the  plane  of  sym- 
metry if  necessary).  This  angle  is  measured  in  a  plane 
perpendicular  to  that  intersection.  The  measure  of  the 
dihedral  is  taken  as  90°  minus  one-half  of  this  angle  as  defined. 
The  dihedral  of  the  upper  planes  may  and  frequently 
does  differ  from  that  of  the  lower  planes  in  a  biplane. 

DIRIGIBLE:  See  Airship. 

DIVING  RUDDER:  See  Elevator. 

DOPE:  A  general  term  applied  to  the  material  used  in  treating 
the  cloth  surface  of  airplane  members  and  balloons  to  in- 
crease strength,  produce  tautness,  and  act  as  a  filler  to  main- 
tain air-tightness;  it  usually  has  a  cellulose  base. 

DRAG:  The  component  parallel  to  the  relative  wind  of  the  total 
force  on  an  aerofoil  or  aircraft  due  to  the  air  through  which 
it  moves. 

In  the  case  of  an  airplane,  that  part  of  the  drag  due  to 
the  wings  is  called  "wing  resistance";  that  due  to  the  rest 
of  the  airplane  is  called  "parasite  resistance." 

DRIFT:  See  Drag.  Also  used  as  synonymous  with  "leeway," 
q.  v. 

DRIFT  METER:  An  instrument  for  the  measurement  of  the  an- 
gular deviation  of  an  aircraft  from  a  set  course,  due  to  cross 
winds. 

DRIP  CLOTH:  A  curtain  around  the  equator  of  a  balloon,  which 
prevents  rain  from  dripping  into  the  basket. 

DROOP:  A  permanent  warp  of  an  aerofoil  such  that  the  angle 
of  attack  increases  toward  the  wing  tips.  (The  opposite  of 
"washout.") 

ELEVATOR:  A  movable  auxiliary  surface,  usually  attached  to 
the  tail,  the  function  of  which  is  to  control  the  longitudinal 
attitude  of  an  aircraft  by  rotating  it  about  its  lateral  axis. 

EMPENNAGE:  The  tail  surfaces  of  an  aircraft.  Sometimes  the 
word  is  limited  to  the  fixed  stabilizing  portion  of  the  tail — 


APPENDIX    III  369 

usually  comprising  the  tail  plane  and  vertical  fin,  to  which 
are  attached  the  elevator  and  rudders. 

ENTERING  EDGE:  The  foremost  edge  of  an  aerofoil  or  propeller 
blade. 

ENVELOPE:  The  outer  covering  of  a  rigid  airship;  or,  in  the 
case  of  a  balloon  or  a  nonrigid  airship,  the  gas  bag  which 
contains  the  gas. 

EQUATOR:  The  largest  horizontal  circle  of  a  spherical  balloon. 

FINS:  Small  fixed  aerofoils  attached  to  different  parts  of  air- 
craft, in  order  to  promote  stability;  for  example,  tail  fins, 
skid  fins,  etc.  Fins  are  often  adjustable.  They  m'ay  be 
either  horizontal  or  vertical. 

FLIGHT  PATH:  The  path  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  an  aircraft 
with  reference  to  the  earth. 

FLOAT:  That  portion  of  the  landing  gear  of  an  aircraft  which 
provides  buoyancy  when  it  is  resting  on  the  surface  of  the 
water. 

FUSELAGE:  The  elongated  structure  to  which  are  attached  the 
landing  gear,  wings  and  tail.  A  fuselage  is  rarely  used  with 
pushers;  and  in  general  it  is  designed  to  hold  the  passengers. 

GAP:  The  shortest  distance  between  the  planes  of  the  chords 
of  the  upper  and  lower  planes  of  a  biplane,  measured  along 
a  line  perpendicular  to  the  chord  of  the  lower  plane  at  its 
entering  edge. 

GAS  BAG:  See  Envelope. 

GLIDE:  To  fly  without  engine  power. 

GLIDER:  A  form  of  aircraft  similar  to  an  airplane,  but  without 
any  power  plant. 

When  utilized  in  variable  winds  it  makes  use  of  the  soar- 
ing principles  of  flight  and  is  sometimes  called  a  soaring 
machine. 

GLIDING  ANGLE:  See  Angle,  gliding. 

GORE:  One  of  the  segments  of  fabric  composing  the  envelope. 

GROUND  CLOTH:  Canvas  placed  on  the  ground  to  protect  a 
balloon. 


370  APPENDIX    III 

GUIDE  ROPE:  The  long  trailing  rope  attached  to  a  spherical 
balloon  or  airship,  to  serve  as  a  brake  and  as  a  variable  bal- 
last. 

GUY:  A  rope,  chain,  wire  or  rod  attached  to  an  object  to  guide 
or  steady  it,  such  as  guys  to  wing,  tail,  or  landing  gear. 

HANGAR:  A  shed  for  housing  airships  or  airplanes. 

HELICOPTER:  A  form  of  aircraft  whose  support  in  the  air  is 
derived  from  the  vertical  thrust  of  propellers. 

HORN:  A  short  arm  fastened  to  a  movable  part  of  an  airplane, 
serving  as  a  lever  arm,  e.  g.,  aileron  horn,  rudder  horn,  ele- 
vator horn. 

HULL  OF  AN  AIRSHIP:  The  main  structure  of  a  rigid  airship, 
consisting  of  a  covered  elongated  framework  which  incloses 
the  gas  bags  and  which  supports  the  nacelles  and  equipment. 

INCLINOMETER:  An  instrument  for  measuring  the  angle  made 
by  any  axis  of  an  aircraft  with  the  horizontal,  often  called  a 
clinometer. 

INSPECTION  WINDOW:  A  small  transparent  window  in  the  en- 
velope of  a  balloon  or  in  the  wing  of  an  airplane  to  allow 
inspection  of  the  interior. 

KITE:  A  form  of  aircraft  without  other  propelling  means  than 
the  towline  pull,  whose  support  is  derived  from  the  force  of 
the  wind  moving  past  its  surface. 

LANDING  GEAR:  The  understructure  of  an  aircraft  designed  to 
carry  the  load  when  resting  on  or  running  on  the  surface 
of  the  land  or  water.  . 

LEADING  EDGE:  See  Entering  edge. 

LEEWAY:  The  angular  deviation  from  a  set  course  over  the 
earth,  due  to  cross  currents  of  wind,  also  called  drift;  hence, 
"drift  meter." 

LIFT:  The  component  of  the  total  force  due  to  the  air  resolved 
perpendicular  to  the  relative  wind  and  in  the  plane  of  sym- 
metry. 

LIFT  OF  AN  AIRSHIP: 

Dynamic. — The  component  of  the  total  force  on  an  air- 


APPENDIX    III  371 

ship  due  to  the  air  through  which  it  moves,  resolved 
perpendicular  to  the  relative  wind  and  in  the  plane 
including  the  direction  of  the  relative  wind  and  the 
longitudinal  axis. 
Static. — The  vertical  upward  force  on  an  airship  when  at 

rest  in  the  air,  due  to  buoyancy. 
LIFT  BRACING:  See  Stay. 
LOAD: 

Dead. — The  structure,  power  plant,  and  essential  acces- 
sories of  an  aircraft.  Included  in  this  are  the  water  in 
the  radiator,  tachometer,  thermometer,  gauges,  air- 
speed indicator,  levels,  altimeter,  compass,  watch,  and 
hand  starter. 

Full — The  total  weight  of  an  aircraft  when  loaded  to  the 
maximum  authorized  loading  of  that  particular  type.    - 
Useful. — The  excess  of  the  full  load  over  the  dead-weight 
of  the  aircraft  itself.     Therefore  useful  load  includes 
the  crew  and  passengers,  oil  and  fuel,  electric-light  in- 
stallation, chart  board,  gun  mounts,  bomb  storage  and 
releasing  gear,  wireless  apparatus,  etc. 
LOADING:  See  Wing  loading. 
LOBES:  Bags  at  the  stern  of  an  elongated  balloon  designed  to 

give  it  directional  stability. 
LONGERON:  See  Longitudinal. 

LONGITUDINAL:  A  fore-and-aft  member  of  the  framing  of  an 
airplane  body  or  of  the  floats,  usually  continuous  across  a 
number  of  points  of  support. 

LOOP,  A:  An  aerial  maneuver  in  which  the  airplane  describes 
an  approximately  circular  path  in  the  plane  of  the  longi- 
tudinal and  normal  axes,  the  lateral  axis  remaining  hori- 
zontal, and  the  upper  side  of  the  airplane  remaining  on  the 
inside  of  the  circle. 
MAROUFLAGE:  The  process  of  wrapping  and  winding  wooden 

parts  in  cloth. 
MONOPLANE:  A  form  of  airplane  which  has  but  one  main 


372  APPENDIX    III 

supporting  surface  extending  equally  on  each  side  of  the 
body. 
MOORING  BAND:  The  band  of  tape  over  the  top  of  a  balloon  to 

which  are  attached  the  mooring  ropes. 

NACELLE:  The  inclosed  shelter  for  passengers  or  for  an  engine. 

Usually  in  the  case  of  a  single-engine  pusher  it  is  the  central 

structure  to  which  the  wings  and  landing  gear  are  attached. 

NET:  A  rigging  made  of  ropes  and  twine  on  spherical  balloons 

which  supports  the  entire  load  carried. 

ORNITHOPTER:  A  form  of  aircraft  deriving  its  support  and  pro- 
pelling force  from  flapping  wings. 
OVERHANG:  One-half  the  difference  in  the  span  of  the  upper 

and  lower  planes  of  a  biplane. 

PANCAKE:  To  "level  off"  an  airplane,  just  before  landing,  at 
too  great  an  altitude,  thus  stalling  it  and  causing  it  to  de- 
scend with  the  wings  at  a  very  large  angle  of  incidence. 
PANEL:  The  unit  piece  of  fabric  of  which  the  envelope  is  made. 
PARACHUTE:  An  apparatus,  made  like  an  umbrella,  used  to 

retard  the  descent  of  a  falling  body. 

PATCH  SYSTEM:  A  system  of  construction  in  which  patches 

(or  adhesive  flaps)  are  used  in  place  of  the  suspension  band. 

PERMEABILITY:  The  measure  of  the  loss  of  gas  by  diffusion 

through  the  intact  balloon  fabric. 
PITCH  OF  A  PROPELLER: 

(a)  Pitch,  effective. — The  distance  an  aircraft  advances 
along  its  flight  path  for  one  revolution  of  the  propeller. 
(6)  Pitch,  geometrical. — The  distance  an  element  of  a  pro- 
peller would  advance  in  one  revolution  if  it  were  turn- 
ing in  a  solid  nut — i.  e.,  if  it  were  moving  along  a  helix 
of  slope  equal  to  the  angle  between  the  chord  of  the  ele- 
ment and  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  propeller  axis. 
The  mean  geometrical  pitch  of  a  propeller,  which  is  a 
quantity  commonly  used  in  specifications,  is  the  mean 
of  the  geometrical  pitches  of  the  several  elements. 
(c)  Pitch,  virtual. — The  distance  a  propeller  would  have  to 


APPENDIX    III  373 

advance  in  one  revolution  in  order  that  there  might  be 
no  thrust. 

(d)  Pitch  speed. — The  product  of  the  mean  geometrical 
pitch  by  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  propeller  in 
unit  time — i.  e.,  the  speed  the  aircraft  would  make  if 
there  were  no  slip. 

(e)  Slip. — The  difference  between  the  effective  pitch  and 
the  mean  geometrical  pitch.    Slip  is  usually  expressed 
as  a  percentage  of  the  mean  geometrical  pitch. 

PITCH,  ANGLE  OP:  The  angle  between  two  planes,  defined  as 
follows:  One  plane  includes  the  lateral  axis  of  the  aircraft 
and  the  direction  of  the  relative  wind;  the  other  plane  in- 
cludes the  lateral  axis  and  the  longitudinal  axis.  (In  hori- 
zontal normal  flight  this  angle  of  pitch  is,  then,  the  angle 
between  the  longitudinal  axis  and  the  direction  of  the  rela- 
tive wind.) 

PITOT  TUBE:  A  tube  with  an  end  open  square  to  the  fluid 
stream,  used  as  a  detector  of  an  impact  pressure.  It  is 
usually  associated  with  a  coaxial  tube  surrounding  it,  having 
perforations  normal  to  the  axis  for  indicating  static  pressure; 
or  there  is  such  a  tube  placed  near  it  and  parallel  to  it,  with 
a  closed  conical  end  and  having  perforations  in  its  side. 
The  velocity  of  the  fluid  can  be  determined  from  the  differ- 
ence between  the  impact  pressure  and  the  static  pressure, 
as  read  by  a  suitable  gauge.  This  instrument  is  often  used 
to  determine  the  velocity  of  an  aircraft  through  the  air. 

PLANE:  One  of  the  main  supporting  surfaces  of  an  airplane 
or  of  a  wing.  (Thus  the  upper  or  lower  plane  of  an  airplane 
or  the  upper  right  plane  or  lower  right  plane  of  the  right 
wing.) 

PONTOONS:  See  Float. 

PRESSURE  NOZZLE:  The  apparatus  which,  in  combination  with 
a  gauge,  is  used  to  measure  speed  through  the  air. 

PUSHER:  See  Airplane. 

PYLON:  A  mast  or  pillar  serving  as  a  marker  of  a  course. 


374  APPENDIX    III 

RACE  OF  A  PROPELLER:  See  Slip  stream. 

RATE  OF  CLIMB:  The  vertical  component  of  the  flight  speed  of 
an  aircraft — i.  e.,  its  vertical  velocity  with  reference  to  the 
air. 

RELATIVE  WIND:  The  motion  of  the  air  with  reference  to  a 
moving  body.  Its  direction  and  velocity,  therefore,  are 
found  by  adding  two  vectors,  one  being  the  velocity  of  the 
air  with  reference  to  the  earth,  the  other  being  equal  and 
opposite  to  the  velocity  of  the  body  with  reference  to  the 
earth. 

RIGHT-HAND  ENGINE:  An  engine  designed  to  drive  a  right- 
hand  tractor  screw. 

RIGHTING  MOMENT:  A  moment  which  tends  to  restore  an  air- 
craft to  its  previous  attitude  after  any  rotational  disturbance. 

RIP  CORD:  The  rope  running  from  the  rip  panel  of  a  balloon 
to  the  basket,  the  pulling  of  which  causes  immediate  deflation. 

RIP  PANEL:  A  strip  in  the  upper  part  of  a  balloon  which  is  torn 
off  when  immediate  deflation  is  desired. 

ROLL,  A:  An  aerial  maneuver  in  which  a  complete  revolution 
about  the  longitudinal  axis  is  made,  the  direction  of  flight 
being  maintained. 

RUDDER:  A  hinged  or  pivoted  surface,  usually  more  or  less  flat 
or  stream  lined,  used  for  the  purpose  of  controlling  the  at- 
titude of  an  aircraft  about  its  normal  axis — i.  e.,  for  con- 
trolling its  lateral  movement. 

Balanced. — A  rudder  having  part  of  its  surface  in  front  of 
its  pivot. 

RUDDER  BAR:  The  foot  bar  by  means  of  which  the  rudder  is 
operated. 

SEAPLANE:  A  particular  form  of  airplane  in  which  the  landing 
gear  is  suited  to  operation  from  the  water. 

(a)  Boat  seaplane  (or  flying  boat}. — A  form  of  seaplane 
having  for  its  central  portion  a  boat  which  provides 
flotation.  It  is  often  provided  with  auxiliary  floats  or 
pontoons. 


APPENDIX    III  375 

(b)  Float  seaplane. — A  form  of  seaplane  in  which  the  land- 
ing gear  consists  of  one  or  more  floats  or  pontoons. 

SERPENT:  A  short,  heavy  guide  rope. 

SIDE  SLIPPING:  Sliding  downward  and  inward  when  making  a 
turn;  due  to  excessive  banking.  It  is  the  opposite  of  skid- 
ding. 

SKIDDING:  Sliding  sidewise  away  from  the  center  of  the  turn 
in  flight.  It  is  usually  caused  by  insufficient  banking  in  a 
turn  and  is  the  opposite  of  side  slipping. 

SKIDS:  Long  wooden  or  metal  runners  designed  to  prevent 
nosing  of  a  land  machine  when  landing  or  to  prevent  drop- 
ping into  holes  or  ditches  in  rough  ground.  Generally  de- 
signed to  function  should  the  landing  gear  collapse  or  fail  to 
act. 

SLIP  STREAM  (or  propeller  race):  The  stream  of  air  driven  aft 
by  the  propeller  and  with  a  velocity  relative  to  the  airplane 
greater  than  that  of  the  surrounding  body  of  still  air. 

SOARING  MACHINE:  See  Glider. 

SPAN  (or  spread):  The  maximum  distance  laterally  from  tip 
to  tip  of  an  airplane  or  the  lateral  dimension  of  an  aerofoil. 

SPEED:  Air. — The  speed  of  an  aircraft  relative  to  the  air. 

Ground. — The  horizontal  component  of  the  velocity  of  an 
aircraft  relative  to  the  earth. 

SPIN:  An  aerial  maneuver  consisting  of  a  combination  of  roll 
and  yaw,  with  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  airplane  inclined 
steeply  downward.  The  machine  descends  in  a  helix  of  large 
pitch  and  very  small  radius,  the  upper  side  of  the  machine 
being  on  the  inside  of  the  helix,  and  the  angle  of  attack  being 
maintained  at  a  large  value. 

STABILITY:  A  body  in  any  attitude  has  stability  about  an  axis 
if,  after  a  slight  displacement  about  that  axis,  it  tends  to 
regain  its  initial  attitude. 

Directional. — Stability  with  reference  to  the  normal  axis. 
Dynamical. — The  quality  of  an  aircraft  in  flight  which 
causes  it  to  return  to  a  condition  of  equilibrium  after  its 


376  APPENDIX    III 

attitude  has  been  changed  by  meeting  some  disturbance 
— e.  g.,  a  gust.  This  return  to  equilibrium  is  due  to 
two  factors:  First,  the  inherent  righting  moments  of 
the  structure;  second,  the  damping  of  the  oscillations 
by  the  tail,  etc. 

Inherent. — Stability  of  an  aircraft  due  to  the  disposition 
and  arrangement  of  its  fixed  parts,  i.  e.,  that  property 
which  causes  it  to  return  to  its  normal  attitude  of  flight 
without  the  use  of  the  controls. 

Lateral. — Stability  with  reference  to  displacements  in- 
volving rolling  or  yawing,  i.  e.,  displacements  in  which 
the  plane  of  symmetry  of  the  airplane  is  rotated. 

Longitudinal. — Stability  with  reference  to  displacements 
involving  pitching,  i.  e.,  displacements  in  which  the 
plane  of  symmetry  of  the  airplane  is  not  rotated. 

Statical. — In  wind-tunnel  experiments  it  is  found  that 
there  is  a  definite  angle  of  attack,  such  that,  for  a  greater 
angle  or  a  less  one,  the  righting  moments  are  in  such  a 
sense  as  to  tend  to  make  the  attitude  return  to  this 
angle.  This  holds  true  for  A  certain  range  of  angles  on 
each  side  of  this  definite  angle;  and  the  machine  is  said 
to  possess  "statical  stability"  through  this  range. 

A  machine  possesses  statical  stability  if,  when  its  at- 
titude is  disturbed,  moments  tending  to  restore  it  to 
this  attitude  are  set  up  by  the  action  of  the  air  on  the 
machine;  e.  g.,  if  an  aircraft,  after  an  initial  disturbance, 
oscillates  with  swings  of  constantly  increasing  ampli- 
tude, it  is  statically  stable  but  not  dynamically  stable. 
STABILIZER:  A  fixed  horizontal,  or  nearly  horizontal,  tail  sur- 
face, used  to  steady  the  longitudinal  motion  and  to  damp 
oscillations  in  pitch. 

Mechanical. — A  mechanical  device  to  steady  the  motion  of 

an  aircraft. 

STAGGER:  The  amount  of  advance  of  the  entering  edge  of  the 
upper  plane  of  a  biplane  over  that  of  the  lower,  expressed  as 


APPENDIX    III  377 

percentage  of  gap;  it  is  considered  positive  when  the  upper 

surface  is  forward  and  is  measured  from  the  entering  edge 

of  the  upper  plane  along  its  chord  to  the  point  of  intersection 

of  this  chord  with  a  line  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  chord  of 

the  lower  plane  at  its  entering  edge,  all  lines  being  drawn  in 

a  plane  parallel  to  the  plane  of  symmetry. 

(In  directions  for  rigging). — The  horizontal  distance  be- 
tween the  entering  edge  of  the  upper  Rlane  and  that  of 
the  lower  when  the  airplane  is  in  the  standard  position; 
i.  e.,  when  the  arbitrary  line  of  reference  in  the  airplane 
is  horizontal.  (This  line  is  usually  the  axis  of  the  pro- 
peller shaft.) 
STALLING:  A  term  describing  the  condition  of  an  airplane 

which  from  any  cause  has  lost  the  relative  speed  necessary 

for  control. 
STATOSCOPE:  An  instrument  to  detect  the  existence  of  a  small 

rate  of  ascent  or  descent,  principally  used  in  ballooning. 
STAY:  A  wire,  rope,  or  the  like,  used  as  a  tie  piece  to  hold  parts 

together,  or  to  contribute  stiffness.    For  example,  the  stays 

of  the  wing  and  body  trussing. 
STEP:  A  break  in  the  form  of  the  bottom  of  a  float. 
STREAM-LINE  FLOW:  The  condition  of  continuous  flow  of  a 

fluid,  as  distinguished  from  eddying  flow. 
STREAM-LINE  SHAPE:  A  shape  intended  to  avoid  eddying  and 

to  preserve  stream-line  flow. 
STRUT:  A  compression  member  of  a  truss  frame.    For  instance, 

the  vertical  members  of  the  wing  truss  of  a  biplane. 
SUSPENSION  BAND:  The  band  around  a  balloon  to  which  are 

attached  the  basket  and  the  main  bridle  suspensions. 
SUSPENSION  BAR:  The  bar  used  for  the  concentration  of  basket 

suspension  ropes  in  captive  balloons. 
SWEEP  BACK:  The  horizontal  angle  between  the  lateral  axis  of 

an  airplane  and  the  entering  edge  of  the  main  planes. 
TAIL:  The  rear  portion  of  an  aircraft,  to  which  are  usually 

attached  rudders,  elevators,  stabilizers,  and  fins. 


378  APPENDIX    III 

TAIL  CUPS:  The  steadying  device  attached  at  the  rear  of  cer- 
tain types  of  elongated  captive  balloons. 

TANDEM:  An  airplane  whose  sets  of  planes  are  placed  one  in 
front  of  the  other. 

TRACTOR:  See  Airplane. 

TRAILING  EDGE:  The  rearmost  edge  of  an  aerofoil  or  pro- 
peller blade. 

TRIPLANE:  A  form  of  airplane  whose  main  supporting  surface 
is  divided  into  three  parts,  superimposed. 

TRUSS:  The  framing  by  which  the  wing  loads  are  transmitted 
to  the  body;  comprises  struts,  stays,  and  spars. 

UNDERCARRIAGE:  See  Landing  gear. 

VENTURI  TUBE:  A  short  tube,  flaring  at  the  front  end,  and 
constricted  approximately  midway  of  its  length,  so  that, 
when  fluid  flows  through  it,  there  will  be  a  suction  produced 
in  a  side-tube  opening  into  the  constricted  throat.  This  tube, 
when  combined  with  a  Pitot  tube  or  with  one  giving  static 
pressure,  forms  a  pressure  nozzle,  which  may  be  used  as  an 
instrument  to  determine  the  speed  of  an  aircraft  through  the 
air. 

WARP:  To  change  the  form  of  the  wing  by  twisting  it. 

WASH  IN:  See  Droop. 

WASHOUT:  A  permanent  warp  of  an  aerofoil  such  that  the  angle 
of  attack  decreases  toward  the  wing  tips. 

WEIGHT,  GROSS:  See  Load,  full. 

WING:  The  aggregate  sustaining  structure  on  the  right  or  left 
side  of  an  airplane,  comprising  both  planes  and  trussing. 
(Thus,  "detachable  wings"  and  "folding  wings.") 

WING  FLAP:  See  Aileron. 

WING  LOADING:  The  weight  carried  per  unit  area  of  supporting 
surface. 

WING  MAST:  The  mast  structure  projecting  above  the  wing, 
to  which  the  top  load  wires  are  attached. 

WING  RIB:  A  fore-and-aft  member  of  the  wing  structure  used 
to  support  the  covering  and  to  give  the  wing  section  its  form. 


APPENDIX    III  379 

WING  SPAR  OR  WING  BEAM:  A  transverse  member  of  the  wing 

structure. 
YAW:  Yawing. — Angular  motion  about  the  normal  axis. 

Angle  of. — The  angle  between  the  direction  of  the  relative 

wind  and  the  plane  of  symmetry  of  an  aircraft. 
ZERO  LIFT  LINE:  The  limiting  position  in  an  aerofoil  section  of 
the  line  of  action  of  the  resultant  air  force  when  the  position 
of  the  section  is  such  that  the  lift  is  zero. 


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